The correct answer appears first and is boldface.

1. b. Andrea is classifying herself in terms of the easily observable category of gender, which suggests that she has established a categorical self.

a. Mastery orientation describes an individual's sense of the reasons he or she succeeds or fails on a task.

c. Andrea is not making an attribution, which is an inference about another person's characteristics that cause that person's behavior.

d. Self-regulation means trying to control one's own behavior in accordance with the caregiver's or community's standards. Andrea is not demonstrating self-regulation.

2. a. Children under seven years old often do not make use of information about other children's performance when asked to evaluate their own performances.

b. Although young children may be sensitive to others' emotional distress, they do not make social comparisons when evaluating their achievement abilities.

c. Research cited in the text indicates that young children do not have very good metacognitive skills.

d. Although the self-concept begins to form in early childhood, comparison with others is emphasized by the child only after about age six or seven.

3. d. Roger is demonstrating effectance motivation, an intrinsic desire to gain control over the environment.

a. A mastery orientation requires some knowledge on the child's part of whether what happens to him or her depends on the child's own efforts or is a result of luck or fate.

b. If Roger were making an attribution, he would be making an inference about his own characteristics that cause his behavior, but Roger is not making an inference about the cause of his behavior.

c. Roger is not delaying gratification by playing with the remote control.

4. b. Pointing out the positive ways that children approach a problem can be an effective way to motivate them to achieve a goal.

a. Frequent punishment may encourage children to avoid challenging activities and promote a feeling that there is little reason to try.

c. When poor performance is displayed, parents should avoid focusing on the child's intrinsic abilities and instead point out the nonintellectual and temporary factors that may have affected performance.

d. Repeated emphasis on evaluation may remove any incentive for children to interpret such situations as opportunities to learn and develop new skills.

5. d. During the adolescent years, individuals begin to reflect on their identity and to express greater autonomy and independence.

a. Preschoolers do not yet have the cognitive capacity to reflect on their future or to express the kind of autonomy and independence Richard is showing.

b. Seven- or eight-year-olds do not yet have the cognitive capacity to reflect on their future or to express the kind of autonomy and independence Richard is showing.

c. Although approaching the teen years, most ten- or eleven-year-olds still do not display the cognitive capacity to reflect on their future or to express the kind of autonomy and independence Richard is showing.

6. b. A child who can delay gratification has developed self-restraint, an important component of self-control.

a. Delay of gratification has been shown to be directly related to self-control.

c. Delay of gratification is specifically defined as the ability to wait to perform some tempting or desirable activity.

d. A child who can delay gratification has developed the self-restraint necessary to comply with instructions concerning her or his own behavior.

7. c. Marcia is trying to start an interesting conversation with her son. Mothers who anticipate conflict by engaging their children in an interesting conversation to distract the child's attention are more successful in preventing conflict.

a. Verbal restraint has been found to be less effective than diverting children's attention when attempting to prevent conflicts.

b. Punishment is often less effective than distraction in helping to regulate a child's behavior.

d. Marcia is not likely to reduce her son's demands by ignoring him.

8. d. Children in the moral realism stage judge rightness and wrongness by objective, visible consequences, such as how many cookies were taken.

a. Immanent justice is not a stage; it is the belief that punishment will inevitably follow a transgression.

b. A child in the moral relativism stage makes judgments on the basis of intentions. Perry is not comparing motives for taking the cookies.

c. A conventional level of morality is part of Kohlberg's theory and is not seen in children until they are older.

9. b. Support for this assertion includes the observation that moral thought is related to Piagetian stages of cognitive development.

a. Piaget's assertion that cognitive growth underlies changes in moral reasoning has received considerable experimental support.

c. Support for Piaget's assertion that cognitive growth underlies changes in moral reasoning is not mixed.

d. There has been considerable research on Piaget's ideas on development, including his ideas on moral development.

10. c. Lester wants to avoid disapproval by his friend Bill. Striving to avoid the disapproval of others is the motive for action in the conventional level.

a. The primary motive for action at the preconventional level is the avoidance of punishment or the gaining of rewards. Lester did not express a fear of being punished or a hope of gaining approval.

b. Lester does not express a general notion of what behaviors are right and wrong, a hallmark of the postconventional level.

d. Morality of justice refers not to a stage but to a kind of dilemma. Gilligan has criticized Kohlberg's theory for emphasizing this kind of dilemma.

11. d. Gilligan's criticism of Kohlberg's views has provided a larger forum for discussing what constitutes moral development.

a. Sex differences in moral development have been reported, but the interpretation of these differences is a matter of debate.

b. Gilligan criticized Kohlberg's view of women as inferior to males in moral development and suggested that women's moral development is different, not inferior.

c. Research examining moral development has been conducted primarily in Western cultures.

12. a. Young children are more likely to react to behavior that violates a moral rule (such as hurting someone by pulling hair) than to behavior that violates a social norm (such as throwing uneaten food on the floor).

b. The pretzel-throwing incident is a violation of a social norm, whereas hair pulling is a violation of a moral rule; preschoolers are more likely to react to violations of a moral rule.

c. Preschoolers are likely to react to violations of both rules, but particularly to the violation of the moral rule.

d. Preschoolers are more likely to react to the violation of the moral rule.

13. c. Few sex differences in prosocial behavior and altruism have been observed among children. However, perhaps because of socialization differences, girls do tend to express more sympathy and concern about helping others.

a. There is no evidence that sex differences are greater in younger children than in older children.

b. Although sex differences in assisting others have not been regularly observed, females do express more sympathy for others.

d. There is no evidence that sex differences are greater in older children than in younger children.

14. b. Children from different cultures have been observed to differ in their tendency to reason about prosocial matters. Differences in altruism have also been observed, particularly when urban and rural children were compared.

a. In some cultures where societal values differ from those in Western cultures, variations in moral reasoning are evident.

c. Differences in altruistic behavior have been observed; altruistic behavior is more likely to occur in societies where the predominant ethic is interdependence and group orientation.

d. Studies of children raised on an Israeli kibbutz and of children from a New Guinea coastal village indicate that cross-cultural differences occur in moral reasoning.

15. d. In this statement, Faye makes an attribution about her child's prosocial behaviors. Such attributions are more likely to cause children to behave altruistically.

a. A statement such as this is an example of power assertion, which is less likely to foster altruistic behavior.

b. A statement such as this is an example of power assertion, which is less likely to foster altruistic behavior.

c. Providing children with material rewards may increase altruistic behavior, but the behavior is more likely a result of the desire to obtain rewards than of an internal motive for altruism.

16. a. Effectance motivation is thought to be an infant's innate need to master his/her environment. Taking actions and learning the consequences (here, his mother comes running when the pots are hit) is an example of effectance motivation.

b. Immanent justice is Piaget's idea that young children have a false sense of cause-effect when considering moral behavior and consequences. Although Patrick's mother may be annoyed when he bangs the pots, there is no sense of negative consequences in the question.

c. Conventional reality is Kohlberg's second level of moral reasoning.

d. Identity is the broad-based theory that a person has about their self-concept, self-esteem, future plans, etc.

17. d. Lev Vygotsky theorized that language plays an important role in behavioral regulation. Lisa is engaging in private speech that may help direct her to important aspects of a task. Although a normal phase in development, some researchers have found that preschoolers who are at risk for behavior problems produce more private speech than those who are not at risk.

a. Although preschoolers at risk for behavior problems may engage in more private speech than other children, it is not a major predictor of adjustment problems.

b. Private speech is typically seen more often when the child is facing a difficulty problem.

c. As stated above, one indicator of children who may be at risk for behavioral problems is an increase in private speech.

18. b. Immanent justice is Piaget's term for beliefs that young children have about cause-effect when dealing with moral behavior. Since Adrienne believes that she failed the exam because she stole money (which are typically unrelated events), she is showing a belief in immanent justice.

a. Moral realism is the first stage in Piaget's theory of moral reasoning. A child who is using moral realism judges an act by visible consequences, not by intentions.

c. Moral relativism occurs when a child judges moral behavior by the intentions of the person.

d. Postconventional reasoning is Kohlberg's third stage of moral reasoning, and is not typically reached until adulthood.