The correct answer appears first and is boldface.

1. c. Studies show that smiling in the newborn infant occurs primarily during REM sleep.

a. Infants begin to respond to visual stimuli (such as their mothers' faces) with a smile at about three months of age. Roxanne is unlikely to be smiling at her parents in response to their smiles, since she is less than a week old.

b. It is possible that the parents misinterpreted a facial response to "gas" as a smile, but assuming that the smile was real, there is a better answer to choose.

d. It is unlikely that a three-day-old infant is experiencing the emotion adults call "happiness."

2. d. Social referencing involves the child's active role in looking to others for emotional cues to help interpret an unfamiliar or ambiguous event.

a. Although a surprised expression may elicit a reaction from caregivers, there is no reason to infer that the infant actively produces the response to obtain such a reaction.

b. A child does not actively seek positive reinforcers to learn appropriate behavior; positive reinforcers to shape a child's behavior are usually provided by others.

c. Infants' smiling as a result of changing physiological states is reflexive and therefore passive.

3. c. Being alone on the top of the stairs was probably a new experience for Todd. The emotional cues his mother displayed made it clear to Todd that he was in potential danger, so he sat down. This is a good example of social referencing.

a. Todd's mother certainly did send him a signal, but this behavior is an ethological term that describes a signal the infants sends to entice the caregiver to approach him or her.

b. If Todd had a fear of stairs, he would not have climbed them in the first place.

d. Todd's attachment to his mother does not adequately explain the sequence of events described in the question; there is a better choice.

4. c. The mother's reciprocal response to Linda's smile is an example of interactive synchrony between caregiver and child.

a. Separation anxiety is the distress that a child experiences when the mother leaves the immediate environment; Linda's mother did not leave.

b. Linda's positive response to her mother is not consistent with the behavior of ambivalently attached children.

d. Asynchronous interaction would accurately describe the situation if Linda's mother failed to respond to her smiles and coos in a positive manner.

5. a. Children who have a good understanding of their emotions are better liked by their peers.

b. Because children who have a good understanding of their emotions tend to be better liked by peers, Jeffrey is likely to have more, not fewer, friends.

c. Jeffrey is likely to be more advanced cognitively, since emotional development is closely related to advances in cognition.

d. Children who have a good understanding of their emotions are usually proficient verbally and successful in their social relationships.

6. c. Research suggests that children who are frequently punished for displays of negative emotions are often more likely to express anger and hostility and have more problems with others.

a. Children who are given guidance and coaching about ways for controlling negative emotions seem better able to cope with them.

b. Children who are able to talk about their negative feelings seem to be able to control them more effectively than children who are punished.

d. Children who are encouraged to establish their own styles of redirecting their negative respondings are more effective in dealing with them.

7. c. The dramatic changes taking place during adolescence, including more powerful thinking processes, are possible contributors to depression during this period in life.

a. Depressed children often do have a depressed parent, raising the possibility that there is a genetic relationship.

b. Family climate is related to depression. However, when parents are less warm and supportive, the likelihood of depression increases.

d. Children of victims of domestic violence exhibit increased likelihood of depression, perhaps because of the negative image that such violence creates with respect to social relationships.

8. c. Alisha is most certainly an "easy" baby; she is easy to care for and easy to please.

a. Chess and Thomas identified three basic types of temperament. A secure temperament was not one of them, although Alisha certainly appears to be securely attached.

b. A slow-to-warm-up baby has a somewhat negative mood and tends to withdraw from new stimuli; Alisha does not appear to be a slow-to-warm-up baby.

d. Alisha is calm, but a calm temperament is not one of the three types of temperament identified by Chess and Thomas.

d. Muscle tone may be associated with various emotions, but its relationship to the ability of infants to regulate their emotions is not known.

9. a. Daria's behavior is a classic example of separation protest.

b. A stranger is not described in the question, so this choice is inappropriate.

c. The form of attachment cannot be determined, since Daria's behavior is characteristic of both children with secure attachments and some children with insecure attachments.

d. Interactive synchrony, mutually engaging cycles of caregiver-child behaviors, is not evident in the behavior described.

10. d. Edward's distress over the departure of his mother and his warm greeting upon her return is a classic example of the securely attached baby.

a. If Edward were insecurely attached, he would not be so enthusiastic when greeting his returning mother.

b. If Edward were avoidantly attached, he would probably avoid or ignore his returning mother.

c. If Edward were ambivalently attached, he would probably show rejecting behavior toward his returning mother.

11. c. The characteristics of parent and child and the synchrony between the behaviors they display play a major role in the form of attachment that develops.

a. Although the child's temperament plays a role, it is not the only determinant of attachment patterns.

b. Although the behavioral characteristics of the parent play a role, they are not the only determinant of attachment patterns.

d. Innate characteristics of the child, such as temperament, do play a role, but they are not the only determinant of attachment patterns.

12. a. One of the first goals for Terry's mother is to interpret Terry's behaviors correctly. To achieve this goal, she may need to slow the tempo of mother-child interactions somewhat.

b. If her mother withdraws, Terry may not receive the emotional support needed for positive development. In addition, Terry's mother may not have the opportunity to perceive or interpret Terry's behaviors as effectively.

c. Cuddling or close physical contact is not always the most effective way to respond to infants born with a "difficult" temperament. Terry's mother may need to find alternative ways to interact effectively with her.

d. By focusing on negative behaviors, Terry's mother runs the risk of reinforcing such actions. Far more appropriate would be an effort on her part to pay attention to Terry's positive signals.

13. c. As a consequence of the emotional relationships children experience, they continue to hold an internal working model of those relationships which, as an adult, is extended to their interactions with their own children and others.

a. Interactive synchrony refers to the turn-taking experience caregiver and child often display in their emotional interactions with each other, not to how these interactions extend to others.

b. Display rules refer to the culturally accepted ways in which emotions are permitted to be expressed within various cultures. Melody's mother may or may not be displaying approved emotional relationships with her child and others.

d. Signaling behavior refers to the actions of infants and young children such as crying and smiling that are efforts to elicit responses from caregivers.

14. d. A study involving more than a thousand day care children generally found no effects on attachment unless the quality of day care was poor and the mothers were insensitive to their children.

a. This statement is incorrect, since some researchers have provided evidence that they believe demonstrates an effect of day care on attachment, particularly if the mother is insensitive and the quality of day care is poor.

b. This statement is incorrect, because researchers agree that insecure attachments are not a routine outcome of day care.

c. Disorganized/disoriented attachment has been associated with abuse, not with exposure to day care.

15. b. Approximately 80 percent of maltreated infants display disorganized/disoriented attachment in which they show fear of their caregivers, confused facial expressions, and an assortment of avoidant and ambivalent attachment behaviors.

a. Yvonne is least likely to be securely attached.

c. Although Yvonne may show signs of ambivalent attachment, disorganized/disoriented attachment is a better answer here.

d. Although Yvonne may show signs of avoidant attachment, disorganized/disoriented attachment is a better answer here.

16. b. Interactive synchrony occurs in emotional interactions where adult and child engage in mutually increasing emotional displays.

a. Social referencing occurs when a child is unfamiliar or unsure about a situation, and looks towards an adult for guidance as to how to behave or what the appropriate emotional state would be.

c. Although Jessica might have a secure attachment with her mother, just the simple fact of playing and smiling does not necessarily indicate that. Children with all types of attachment patterns can have positive affect with caregivers. Only by using the Strange Situation or a Q-sort could one tell what the attachment style was between child and parent.

d. Smiling and laughing are not complex emotions. Happiness is a basic emotion that may be innate.

17. b. Display rules are the rules that govern appropriate emotional displays. Children gradually learn what their society and culture believe are appropriate emotions, and so may learn to "lie" in emotional situations to follow these rules.

a. A child feeling this emotion would not have to learn that it is appropriate to cry when sad.

c. A child experiencing the physiological sensation of being tickled would not have to learn to laugh.

d. A child in this situation would not have to learn to feel angry.

18. c. Ambivalent (or resistant) children appear to be angry with their parents in the Strange Situation.

a. A securely attached child would be easily comforted when the parent returned and would want to stay with the parent for a little while.

b. An avoidantly attached child would not get particularly upset at the separation phase and are less enthusiastic in greeting the parent upon return.

d. A child showing disorganized attachment shows fear, not anger, with the parent. This attachment pattern is typically seen with abused children.