The correct answer appears first and is boldface.

1. c. To continue to search for an object that is no longer visible, Talia must have an object concept (also called object permanence), the realization that the object still exists even when it is not in view.

a. Circular reactions refer to the repetition of a behavior. Talia is not displaying this form of behavior.

b. Conservation requires a judgment concerning the equivalence of two displays after one display has undergone a transformation. The scenario described here is not an example of a conservation task.

d. This scenario does not describe an example of egocentrism, which is the inability of the preoperational child to separate her or his own perspective from those of others.

2. b. The beginning of the preoperational stage is marked by the semiotic function, the ability to use symbols, objects, or words to represent objects or events.

a. The formal operational stage (the last of Piaget's stages) is marked by more complex forms of abstract and hypothetical thought and occurs long after the child has learned to speak.

c. The beginning of the concrete operational stage is indicated by the ability to solve conservation tasks; there is no indication that Oliver can solve conservation tasks.

d. Deductive reasoning is a form of formal reasoning that does not emerge until the formal operational stage. Because Oliver is just beginning to speak, he cannot be in the formal operational stage.

3. a. One reason preoperational children cannot solve conservation tasks is that they lack reversibility, the ability to mentally reverse an action or transformation on quantities. Because Salvatore can conserve, he must have reversibility.

b. Centration, the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a problem, is one of several limitations that hinder children from solving conservation tasks. Because Salvatore can solve conservation problems, he is unlikely to show centration.

c. Analogical transfer is an important cognitive achievement but it is not necessary for solving conservation tasks. There is no indication that Salvatore shows analogical transfer.

d. Deductive reasoning may be involved in solving conservation problems but there is no evidence that this skill signals the ability to conserve.

4. c. The personal fable is the adolescent's belief that his or her situations and experiences are unique. Therefore, Sandra believes that her parents can't understand her feelings.

a. The imaginary audience is the adolescent's belief that everyone is evaluating him or her.

b. Artificialism is the young child's belief that naturally occurring events are caused by people.

d. Realism is the young child's belief that dreams and mental states are as real as awake, conscious experiences.

5. b. Recent studies on the object concept and acquisition of concepts of number and conservation suggest that infants and children are successful on some tasks far earlier than Piaget claimed.

a. Many modern experimental results suggest that Piaget underestimated the young child's abilities.

c. Most modern criticisms of Piaget's theory center on the argument that development may be more continuous than Piaget presumed, not on the number of stages that occur.

d. Although cognitive development does not appear to be as heavily dependent on the maturation of the central nervous system as Piaget presumed, it still plays an important role, particularly early in development.

6. a. When seven-to-nine-month-old infants make the "A, not B" error, they reach for the object at location A, but they look at location B.

b. They do not look at the location at which they are reaching.

c. They persist in reaching toward location A, not location B.

d. After persisting in trying to locate the hidden object at location A, eventually they may look to their parents for help or comfort if they feel frustrated or upset.

7. a. Chantal is displaying a superordinate level of classification because the items she groups together in her activity do not all share generally similar perceptual features (e.g., corn, hay, and milk) but, instead, are members of broader categories such as farm implements, animals, and farm products.

b. A thematic classification procedure would have been evident if Chantal put away, for example, the cow and the cans of milk, the chicken and the rooster and the corn, and so on.

c. A basic level of classification would have been evident if Chantal put away the two tractors, the chicken and the rooster, and all the bales of hay without putting other objects away in between each category.

d. The animals are examples of a natural domain, however, the farm implements are examples of artifacts. Thus, not all of the items to be put away represent natural domains.

8. b. Unlike uneducated children, children with formal education are more likely to classify objects on the basis of taxonomic relations. Pitchfork and shovel are taxonomically related because both are farm tools.

a. Unlike uneducated children, children with formal education are more likely to classify objects on the basis of taxonomic relations. Pitchfork and hay are functionally, not taxonomically, related.

c. Unlike uneducated children, children with formal education are more likely to classify objects on the basis of taxonomic relations. Chicken and egg are thematically, not taxonomically, related because the two naturally "go together."

d. Unlike uneducated children, children with formal education are more likely to classify objects on the basis of taxonomic relations. Chicken and basket are not taxonomically related, but they may be thematically related if, for example, baskets are used to carry chickens.

9. d. These two levels of visual perspective-taking skills described by Flavell reflect cognitive gains in differentiating oneself from others and in knowledge of space and spatial relationships.

a. According to Flavell, children under three years can distinguish between their own views and those of another person.

b. According to Flavell, children learn that their own views differ from those of others by late infancy. This perspective-taking ability is further refined, not lost, with development.

c. According to Flavell, children begin to distinguish between their own views and those of another person by late infancy without the need for formal schooling.

d. Social skills are often a product of experience. In addition, the research more generally provides support for the notion that social skills are a consequence of theory of mind rather than a contributor to its appearance.

10. b. Sherry does not realize that her mother has a "false belief," that is, that her belief about where something is can be different from external reality and from Sherry's knowledge.

a. The body of research revealing how successfully children can understand that others have mental states different from their own, including knowledge of a false belief, is broadly identified as research on theory of mind.

c. An egocentric perspective is one that fails to take the view or understanding of another into account. Sherry is the one displaying an egocentric perspective, not her mother.

d. People do not have omniscient minds, that is, know everything. Sherry's mother was not provided with information that the baseball and bat had been moved.

11. a. A recent theory of the cause of autism is that autistic children lack a "theory of mind," which prevents them from thinking about their own and others' mental states.

b. Autistic children may have some difficulty with concrete operational thought; however, this has not been suggested as a cause of the disorder.

c. It is likely that autistic children have good configurational knowledge, because some show unusually good memory abilities.

d. Some autistic children show unusually good memory skills.

12. c. Vygotsky stressed the importance of interactions with other people for learning.

a. Skinner stressed the importance of reinforcement for learning (operant conditioning).

b. It was Pavlov who discovered how neutral stimuli come to elicit responses through classical conditioning.

d. This statement may be true, but it is not discussed within Vygotsky's theory.

13. d. The zone of proximal development pertains to the support an expert provides to help a nonexpert (such as a child) learn to complete a task that is slightly beyond her or his current ability.

a. Vygotsky emphasized social activity in general as an important form of learning.

b. The externality effect is the tendency of young infants to focus on outer elements of complex figures.

c. Categorical perception involves the ability to perceive categories of speech sounds.

14. a. Vygotsky's theory stresses carefully modulated interactions between teacher and students that include an appropriate level of guidance and assistance or what would be considered a scaffold for student learning.

b. Learning theory emphasizes the regular and consistent administration of reinforcers.

c. Although a carefully organized, sequenced description of materials is probably beneficial to learning, this is not the primary focus of Vygotsky's sociohistorical theory.

d. Appropriate training of teachers so that they are responsive to students is beneficial to learning, but the emphasis in Vygotsky's sociohistorical theory is on support that is offered within the child's zone of proximal development.

15. d. Solidity refers to the knowledge that solid objects can not occupy the same space. Elizabeth Spelke has shown that infants as young as 2 months possess this concept.

a. Object permanence refers to the knowledge that objects have an independent existence. The objects described in this example were visible at all times, and so do not allow us to determine if Sandi has object permanence.

b. Spelke posits that infants have an innate understanding of the fundamental properties of objects. Solidity is one type of core knowledge.

c. Cardinality is the principle that the last number in a counted set refers to the number of items in that set.

16. c. Two year olds typically fail this classic example of perspective taking or theory of mind experiment. They are egocentric and do not understand that other people may not have the same knowledge as they do, so they think everyone would know that the candy had been switched for rocks.

a This distractor refers to the idea of object permanence, and is well developed by two years of age.

b An older child who possessed a theory of mind would understand just because they know a secret, not everyone else also knows it. Therefore, they would understand that another person would make the logical assumption there was candy inside the candy box.

d The age of the child can provide a rough indication as to how developed her theory of mind would be.

17. a. According to Vygotsky, someone using reciprocal teaching methods should gradually give less directions as the child becomes more proficient, allowing the child to gain greater control over their own learning.

b Teaching should very specifically take place a bit beyond what the child can do on their own, or in the child's zone of proximal development, in order to maximize learning.

c Reciprocal teaching can sometimes be difficult because the teacher needs to consider each child's zone of proximal development, and therefore should individualize the lesson as much as possible.

d Scaffolding, or providing help as children complete their tasks, is by it's very nature, the essence of teaching.

18. c. Children's understanding of natural kinds has been of recent interest to developmental psychologists. Younger children are more perceptually bound, and will only transfer unfamiliar properties from humans to similar animals, while older children have more developed conceptual understanding of theories of biology.

a Older children are not as perceptually bound as younger children, so Jan would be able to reason that if humans have mitochondria, snakes also probably have mitochondria.

b Patrick is too young to have a well-developed theory of biology and so is unlikely to say that a snake (dissimilar to humans) would possess a similar property.

d This option is simply the opposite of the developmental pattern one would expect for children's understanding of natural kinds.