The correct answer appears first and is boldface.

1. c. The sounds that distinguish ma and pa are the phonemes /m/ and /p/.

a. Prosodic features are the patterns of intonation, stress, and rhythm that communicate meaning, not the sounds, or phonemes, of a language.

b. Pragmatics are the rules for using language.

d. Semantics are the meanings of words, not sounds.

2. c. Studies show that newborns prefer to listen to human voices over other sounds.

a. Studies show that newborns prefer to listen to human voices over other sounds such as music.

b. Because newborns prefer to listen to human voices over other sounds, they must be able to discriminate these two forms of auditory stimuli.

d. Studies show that given a choice between a stranger's voice and their mothers' voices, infants prefer to listen to their mothers' voices.

3. c. Young infants' ability to distinguish their own language from other languages to which they are not exposed demonstrates that children can learn to differentiate among languages.

a. Because all infants, even deaf infants, begin to babble at about the same time, this ability is most likely inborn.

b. Evidence indicates that even very young infants can discriminate among phonemes, indicating that this ability is inborn.

d. The very young infant's preference for high-pitched speech is most likely innate.

4. b. The repetition of the same consonant-vowel (d-a) pair is an example of reduplicated babbling.

a. Although dad is a word, the child's repetitive use of the consonant-vowel pair da is not a word.

c. Categorical perception is the inability to distinguish among sounds that vary except when those sounds lie on opposite sides of a critical juncture point.

d. Spectral analysis is a method of analyzing speech sounds by converting them to a visual form.

5. a. A major cognitive advance in the ability to symbolize is hypothesized to account for the appearance of both gestural and spoken efforts to communicate at about one year of age.

b. No evidence exists to indicate that reinforcement is essential for sustaining either gestural or spoken efforts at communication.

c. No evidence exists to indicate that reinforcement is essential for encouraging the development of either gestural or spoken efforts at communication.

d. The extent to which gestures and spoken language are interchangeable is unknown; however, it is unlikely that both must be acquired as part of early communication.

6. a. Children differ in the content of their one-word speech. Children who have mostly object labels in their vocabulary exhibit a referential style.

b. Expressive style describes children who primarily have words that direct the behavior of other people, not words for objects.

c. Action style is not a term used to describe aspects of a child's vocabulary.

d. Pragmatics is the rule for applying language according to social conventions; it is not a term used to describe the types of words in a child's vocabulary.

7. b. The child's utterances in the two-word stage are described as telegraphic because the speech omits conjunctions, prepositions, and other modifiers; it contains only the elements essential for getting the message across.

a. Prosodic features include stress and intonation. Brooke's utterances do not indicate any prosodic features.

c. The term reflective is not used to describe aspects of a child's speech.

d. Metalinguistic refers to children's ability to think about their use of speech abstractly; it does not refer to a form of speech.

8. d. As with most other aspects of grammar and the development of syntax, most children go through a fairly predictable sequence in the different ways they order the words for expressing a question and in the situations to which they apply a negative.

a. Children undergo a consistent developmental pattern in how they express questions, and the negative is applied first to refer to nonexistence, then as a form of rejection, and finally to express denial.

b. Passive voice constructions are among the most difficult linguistic constructions for young children to understand or produce correctly, and errors are frequent even after negative expressions and questions are posed correctly.

c. No evidence exists to indicate that reinforcement plays any greater role in the acquisition of more complex grammatical utterances than it does in earlier grammatical development.

9. a. Pragmatics is concerned with the proper use of speech, and this type of utterance is probably not socially acceptable for a preschooler in her community.

b. Prosody is concerned with the intonation, stress, and rhythm that accompany speech. Cassandra may have meant the way she expressed her desire, however, she still needs to learn how to express it appropriately and in a socially acceptable manner.

c. Turn taking refers to interactions between the child and another person in which they alternate in their communication. No evidence of such alternation exists in this example.

d. Referential communication refers to the ability of a speaker or listener to describe or interpret a message effectively. In this example, Cassandra is probably communicating her desire clearly, but she still needs to learn the socially acceptable way to do so.

10. c. Children younger than six or seven years of age still occasionally believe that the characteristics of a word are sometimes similar to the concept the word refers to.

a. Two-year-olds have few, if any, metalinguistic skills and often think words and objects are similar to each other.

b. Although preschool-age children are beginning to recognize that words are different from the concepts to which they are linked, they still make errors similar to the example here.

d. Well before age twelve, a child has begun to realize that words are not similar to the concepts to which they refer.

11. d. Damage to Broca's area in the left hemisphere has been associated with the inability to produce fluent speech; therefore, Larissa's grandfather most likely suffered damage to the left hemisphere near Broca's area.

a. Wernicke's area is involved in the comprehension of speech, and production often is incomprehensible. In most people, Wernicke's area is in the left hemisphere.

b. The grandfather had good comprehension of speech but found it difficult to speak himself. Wernicke's area was probably not damaged because it is involved in the comprehension and incomprehensibility of speech.

c. Broca's area has been associated with the production of speech, but in most people it is in the left, not the right, hemisphere.

12. d. The fact that language deficits are seen in children who are not exposed to a formal language until late in life suggests there is a critical period for language acquisition.

a. The observation of syntax errors made by children has provided important information concerning the child's active role in language acquisition, but it does not provide evidence for the critical-period hypothesis.

b. Studies of adults with damage to the left hemisphere have led to the understanding of brain lateralization, but they do not provide evidence for the critical-period hypothesis.

c. Recent studies show that lateralization of the hemispheres occurs in the first few months after birth; thus, lateralization is unlikely to be related to critical periods for language acquisition.

13. c. Learning theorists assume that the acquisition of language can be accounted for by such basic principles of learning as reinforcement and imitation.

a. Behavior analysis emphasizes the role of nurture rather than nature in language acquisition.

b. The role of brain lateralization in language acquisition has been addressed by researchers advocating the biological perspective of language development.

d. The learning approach to understanding language acquisition does not address the cognitive abilities of the developing child.

14. c. Piaget argued that once the semiotic function, or the ability to symbolize, emerges, language acquisition becomes possible. Thus, the semiotic function emerges before language develops.

a. Piaget argued that the child must acquire the ability to form mental symbols before a substantial vocabulary is possible.

b. The semiotic function is the ability to symbolize. It emerges before language acquisition.

d. According to Piaget, the ability to symbolize occurs before the acquisition of language; therefore, Toshiko should not show telegraphic speech, since she has yet to learn her first word.

15. a. Motherese includes the use of turnabouts, elements of a conversation that explicitly request a response from the child.

b. Reinforcement is certainly used by parents to teach their children some aspects of language, but it is not a component of the conversational style called motherese.

c. Inflections, endings to words that signal plurals or verb tense, are a normal part of the English language, not only of motherese.

d. Pivot words are a unique feature of the verbalizations of a child in the two-word stage, not of motherese.

16. a. Recent studies show that the more time mothers spend conversing with their infants, the larger the children's vocabularies. Thus, Hannah is likely to have a larger vocabulary than Sheila.

b. Recent studies show that the more time mothers spend conversing with their infants, the larger the children's vocabularies. Thus, Hannah is likely to have a larger, not smaller, vocabulary than Sheila.

c. Recent studies show that the more time mothers spend conversing with their infants, the larger the children's vocabularies. Thus, Hannah is likely to have a larger vocabulary than Sheila.

d. There is no indication in the text's description of the studies on this subject that differences exist in the comprehension and production of children's speech as a function of the amount of time mothers converse with their children.

17. c. Motherese does not seem to be essential for the emergence of language because the children of parents from cultures that do not use features seen in motherese eventually become proficient users of their language.

a. Features of motherese have been observed in fourteen other languages; thus, motherese is not unique to American parents.

b. Not all cultures use motherese to communicate to children; some cultures adopt a very different style of communicating with children.

d. The children of parents from cultures that do not use features seen in motherese become proficient users of their language.

18. c. Evidence from a variety of studies suggests that cognition influences language and language influences cognition.

a. Although language development can promote cognitive development, the answer is incomplete in failing to indicate that cognition and language have an impact on each other.

b. Although cognitive development can promote language development, the answer is incomplete in failing to indicate that cognition and language have an impact on each other.

d. Although certain aspects of language and cognition may operate independently of each other, many other aspects are interconnected.