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Textbook Site for: Child Development - A Thematic Approach , Fifth Edition Danuta Bukatko - College of the Holy Cross Marvin W. Daehler - University of Massachusetts, Amherst Chapter Outline Chapter 16: Beyond Family and Peers Television It is estimated that children spend about one-third of their waking hours watching television. Infants as young as six months watch television. The time spent viewing increases dramatically in the preschool years, peaks at ages ten to twelve, and declines in adolescence. Preschoolers prefer to watch nonanimated informative programs designed especially for children; watching cartoons peaks at about five years of age. Older children watch programs for general audiences. Children's comprehension of television programs The fact that children prefer certain types of programs and these preferences change with age indicates that television viewing is not always a passive process. Formal features of television, such as sound effects, capture children's attention, while other features, such as visual cuts, maintain attention. Children actively direct their attention to the portions of programs they most readily understand. Preschoolers understand short story segments that are aimed at children (such as the short segments found on Sesame Street). When they watch programs for general audiences, they are less likely than older children to remember the explicit and implicit content. Advances in cognitive skills, such as the ability to integrate information separated by time, are linked to children's comprehension of television programs. Increases in general knowledge and advances in verbal skills also enhance children's comprehension of television shows. In addition, older children are better able than younger children to recognize that most television programs depict fabricated rather than real events. Television's influence on cognitive and language development Studies have shown that children show gains in several school readiness skills after viewing Sesame Street for one season. Longitudinal research reveals that high school students who had watched educational television as preschoolers had higher grades and were more achievement oriented than those who had watched more violent or entertainment programs. However, educational programs for children have not always been met with enthusiasm. Sesame Street has been criticized because of its fast-paced format. However, only when children spend large numbers of hours viewing television does academic performance appear to suffer. Television may also provide opportunities for language development. Television's influence on social development Social learning theory predicts that the high levels of violence depicted on television provide children with numerous models for aggression. Several studies suggest a causal relationship between television and aggression. Albert Bandura's classic laboratory study of children observing models behave aggressively toward a Bobo doll, suggested that models on film are as powerful as "live" models in eliciting aggression. By limiting exposure to aggressive models and discussing alternative ways to respond to conflict, the effects of televised aggression may be reduced. Some research suggests that when children view prosocial television programs, their own tendency to behave prosocially increases. Children who watch a lot of television tend to have more stereotyped ideas about gender roles, possibly because most television shows display traditional gender-role stereotypes. Similarly, children might learn ethnic stereotyping as the majority of characters on American television are white. Children are the targets of a large number of television commercials. Children who watch a lot of television respond to the messages of commercials but are not always able to critically evaluate the information presented. Commercials are now being shown in schools as part of news programming and also in some computer labs. Critics express concerns about these practices with respect to what children are learning. Research Applied to Parenting: Encouraging Critical Skills in Television Viewing Parents can encourage critical television viewing skills in children by setting limits on when, how much, and what kinds of programming their children watch. In addition, viewing television programs jointly with children permits opportunities to discuss what is real and what is fantasy, how to resolve conflict in socially acceptable ways, stereotypes, and other issues. Computers A large proportion of children in the United States and in many other countries now have access to computers both in school and at home. The computer is used for educational and entertainment purposes as well as for communication with others. Many children use them for playing games. Academic mastery and cognition Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) involves the use of computers to supply tutorial information and drill-and-practice routines. CAI approaches generally improve students' academic achievement scores, particularly among elementary school and special-needs children. Interactive software that requires creative problem solving or encourages the use of comprehension strategies can also promote academic learning, especially the development of problem-solving approaches that involve higher-order analyses. The results of incorporating computers into education has been mixed. In general, the areas in which the greatest gains are seen are in math and science. Students can observe simulations and can work on sophisticated real-world problems. Social Development Using computers does not displace other activities of a more social nature. In addition, children who work on computers at school tend to collaborate with other children. Controversy: What regulations should exist for children's access to the Internet? Many positive advantages can exist for children when using the internet. Along with accessible sites, however, may come the opportunity for viewing material not considered appropriate for children. Debates exist concerning restrictions placed on publicly accessible machines, such as in libraries and schools. Some believe restricting information in this way interferes with the right to freedom of speech. Sex differences Boys are more likely than girls to use computers, perhaps because of societal stereotypes about activities that are appropriate for each sex. When girls use computers or enroll in computer courses, their performances are similar to those of their male classmates. The availability of computers appears to enhance rather than detract from the process of development and the gap between the genders appears to be narrowing. School The main aim of education is to provide children with academic skills, but the child's numerous hours in school can also have a profound impact on self-concept and psychological well-being. One of the most important outcomes of schooling is literacy, the ability to read and write. Most young adults complete high school, although African Americans and Hispanics lag behind Caucasian students in the proportion graduating from high school. National surveys suggest that the achievement of American students in reading, writing, and science has declined or compares unfavorably with that of students from other industrialized countries. Examining Research Methods: Interpreting Cross-Cultural Test Results Children in the United States often perform relatively poorly compared to children in many other nations on standardized tests of mathematics and science. However, cross-cultural comparisons of test performance are difficult to make. Good cross-cultural research must be conducted with questions that are interpreted the same way no matter what the language of the participants. The populations being tested should also be similar in age, amount of schooling, and other factors that are known to relate to test performance. Issues related to student preparation as well as discrepancies in population selection, representation, and characteristics can combine to make judgments about test performance among children from different cultures inappropriate. Families and peers as agents mediating school achievement . Several factors can affect academic success. Parents' and peers' support and attitudes toward school, as well as after-school employment, can affect how well the child does in school. School and classroom size and academic tracking. School size and class size can also influence the child's development. Students from smaller schools tend to participate more in school activities, feel more competent, and report being more challenged. Smaller class size is associated with greater academic success among students. For example, among first-graders assigned to different-size classes, children from the smaller classes showed greater improvements on standardized tests of reading and mathematics. The benefits are long-term. Proponents of academic tracking argue that grouping students according to academic ability challenges and motivates bright children and spares slower learners the embarrassment of continual failure. Critics argue, however, that academic tracking lowers the self-expectations of slower learners and may limit the access of children from different economic and ethnic/racial backgrounds to educational resources. Research evaluating the two approaches has not yielded consistent benefits for either. School transitions Children who are cooperative in their activities with others and have extensive positive social contacts are more likely to make a smooth adjustment when starting school. The presence of familiar peers also helps transitions by facilitating peer acceptance, possibly by providing a secure base from which to develop additional social relationships. Both younger and older children within the same classroom make similar progress over the academic year. The transition to middle school or junior high school is also important, since it adds to the stresses that many preadolescents are already experiencing. Students often show a decline in school satisfaction, a drop in self-esteem (particularly girls), and more physical complaints at this time. Adjustment is easier if the child has adequate social and emotional support. Teachers: key agents of influence Teachers' expectations of their students' performance can create a self-fulfilling prophecy. A classic study by Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson documented how students' achievement levels rise or decline to the levels that teachers expect. Subsequent studies indicated that high-achieving students receive more opportunities to participate, are given more time to answer questions, and receive more praise and less criticism than low-achieving students. Effective teachers keep classroom time focused on instruction and are personally involved in every phase of the learning process. Teachers who continually provide opportunities for students to compare themselves (by assigning evaluative tasks, organizing groups according to student ability level, and providing public grade announcements) may set the stage for lower self-esteem among some students. Cooperative learning situations often result in higher scores for both genders, and may indeed be especially beneficial to girls. One possible factor associated with cooperative learning environments may be the perception that the teacher and the school are promoting autonomy, or increased student initiative within the classroom. Children who view their teachers as giving them greater responsibility within the classroom appear to have higher self-esteem scores than those who perceive teachers as controlling or directive. Cultural differences in school achievement Children respond differently to the school experience because each child brings along attitudes and beliefs that were acquired in the family and cultural environment. A frequent finding is that children from African American backgrounds score lower than Caucasian children on many measures of academic performance. The cultural compatibility hypothesis has replaced the cultural deficit hypothesis as an explanation for the lower academic achievement of children from some minority groups. It asserts that minority children are culturally different, not culturally deficient, and that they will achieve more if their educational experiences are consistent with the practices of their background cultures. The Kamehameha Early Education Program (KEEP) is an example of an educational intervention program designed within the framework of the cultural compatibility hypothesis to help improve academic achievement among minority Hawaiian children in the state of Hawaii. African American children often confront an educational experience that conflicts with their background culture; in addition, they often experience racism and economic hardship. All of these factors can interfere with school achievement. Nevertheless, many minority children, including African Americans, are successful academically. These children, just as other children, are more likely to succeed in the classroom when they have a supportive home environment. Parents who are involved with their children and expect them to be successful in school have children who do well academically regardless of ethnic background. Asian children show a pattern of higher achievement in reading and mathematics compared to American children. These differing patterns of achievement are not a result of superior cognitive skills in any one group. Asian children spend a greater proportion of classroom time in academic activities, have a longer school year, and do more homework than do American children. Asian American children fall between their Asian and Caucasian American counterparts in academic achievement. This research also provides further confirmation that parental attitudes are related to academic success. Atypical Ddevelopment: Educating Youths with Serious Emotional Disturbances Public education in the United States is intended for all children, including the approximate 11 percent of students who have some type of disability. Many of these children succeed in the public schools; however, youths with serious emotional disturbances seldom receive the kind of assistance that is especially helpful to them. Alternative curricula designed to maintain interest in education and programs designed to integrate youths with serious emotional disturbances with others, along with the involvement of parents in their children's education, are essential for achieving positive outcomes for these individuals. School violence School violence has been an increasing concern. Violent behavior may range from attacks on children or teachers that result in physical or psychological damage, or even death. Violence in inner-city schools appears to be an extension of the violence found in urban neighborhoods, involving problems such as poverty and illegal drug activity. However, violence in suburban and rural schools is more akin to violence shown by adults at the workplace; their dissatisfactions tend to be more abstract and less concerned with specific issues or threats. Factors predicting school violence include being male, a drop in grades, a tendency to engage in delinquent behavior, mental health problems, and easy access to guns. Neighborhoods In many cultures, rearing children is seen as a communal effort. The broader ecological context of where children live, also impacts development. Do neighborhoods matter? The answer is yes. Children who grow up in higher SES neighborhoods do better in school, are more likely to graduate high school, and are less likely to become teenage parents. Neighborhoods can cause such effects by providing better access to resources such as libraries, interpersonal support networks available to parents, and the social norms and cohesion found in the neighborhood. For instance, when residents take the time to develop after-school or sport activities, neighborhoods tend to experience less violence. War and children The consequences for the disruption of war is devastating. As many as 2 million children have lost their lives and 6 million have been injured or disabled as result of war or conflicts. A high percentage of surviving children in wartime show posttraumatic stress disorder. In general, PTSD declines after the first year of exposure, but stressors such as relocation and separation from parents may result in ongoing PTSD. Social support can help ameroliate the effects of war, and establishing a secure environment and professional counseling also show positive benefits. Site Map | Partners | Press Releases | Company Home | Contact Us Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All Rights Reserved. Terms and Conditions of Use, Privacy Statement, and Trademark Information