Bukatko, Child Development - A Thematic Approach, 5e: Glossary Terms

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Child Development - A Thematic Approach , Fifth Edition
Danuta Bukatko - College of the Holy Cross
Marvin W. Daehler - University of Massachusetts, Amherst


	Glossary Terms A \| B \| C \| D \| E \| F \| G \| H \| I \| J \| K \| L \| M \| N \| O \| P \| Q \| R \| S \| T \| U \| V \| W \| X \| Y \| Z A Accommodation In Piagetian theory, a component of adaptation; process of modification in thinking (schemes) that takes place when old ways of understanding something no longer fit. Adaptation In Piagetian theory, the inborn tendency to adjust or become more attuned to conditions imposed by the environment; takes place through assimilation and accommodation. Age-history confound In longitudinal studies, the co-occurrence of historical factors with changes in age; affects the ability to interpret results. Allele Alternate form of a specific gene; provides a genetic basis for many individual differences. Altruism Behavior carried out to help another without expectation of reward. Ambivalent (resistant) attachment Insecure attachment in which the infant shows separation protest but also distress upon the caregiver’s return. Amniocentesis Method of sampling the fluid surrounding the developing fetus by insertion of a needle. Used to diagnose fetal genetic and developmental disorders. Amniotic sac Fluid-filled, transparent protective membrane surrounding the fetus. Analogical transfer Ability to employ the solution to one problem in other, similar problems. Androgen Class of male or masculinizing hormones. Androgyny Gender-role orientation in which a person possesses high levels of personality characteristics associated with both sexes. Animism Attribution of lifelike qualities to inanimate objects. Artificialism Belief that naturally occurring events are caused by people. Assimilation In Piagetian theory, a component of adaptation; process of interpreting an experience in terms of current ways (schemes) of understanding things. Attachment Strong emotional bond that emerges between infant and caregiver. Attention State of alertness or arousal that allows the individual to focus on a selected aspect of the environment. Authoritarian parent Parent who relies on coercive techniques to discipline the child and displays a low level of nurturance. Authoritative parent Parent who sets limits on a child’s behavior using reasoning and explanation and displays a high degree of nurturance. Autobiographical memory Memory for specific events in one’s own life. Autosomes Twenty-two pairs of homologous chromosomes. The two members of each pair are similar in size, shape, and genetic function. The two sex chromosomes are excluded from this class. Avoidant attachment Insecure attachment in which the infant shows little separation anxiety and does not pay much attention to the caregiver’s return. [ return to top ] B Babbling Consonant-vowel utterances that characterize the infant’s first attempts to vocalize. Basic emotion Emotion such as joy, sadness, or surprise that appears early in infancy and seems to have a biological foundation. Also called primary emotion. Behavior analysis Learning theory perspective that explains the development of behavior according to the principles of classical and operant conditioning. Behavior genetics Study of how characteristics and behaviors of individuals, such as intelligence and personality, are influenced by the interaction between genotype and experience. Broca’s area Portion of the cerebral cortex that controls expressive language. [ return to top ] C Canalization Concept that the development of some attributes is governed primarily by the genotype and only extreme environmental conditions will alter the phenotypic pattern for these attributes. Canonical babbling Repetition of simple consonant-vowel combinations in well-formed syllables. Cardinality Principle that the last number in a set of counted numbers refers to the number of items in that set. Case study In-depth description of psychological characteristics and behaviors of an individual, often in the form of a narrative. Catch-up growth Increase in growth rate after some factor, such as illness or poor nutrition, has disrupted the expected, normal growth rate. Categorical perception Inability to distinguish among sounds that vary on some basic physical dimension except when those sounds lie at opposite sides of a critical juncture point on that dimension. Categorical self Conceptual process, starting in the early preschool years, in which the child begins to classify himself or herself according to easily observable categories such as sex, age, or physical capacities. Centration In Piagetian theory, tendency of the child to focus on only one aspect of a problem. Cephalocaudal development Pattern in which organs, systems, and motor movements near the head tend to develop earlier than those near the feet. Chorionic villus sampling Method of sampling fetal chorionic cells. Used to diagnose embryonic genetic and developmental disorders. Chromosomes Threadlike structures of DNA, located in the nucleus of cells, that form a collection of genes. A human body cell normally contains forty-six chromosomes. Chronosystem In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, the constantly changing temporal component of the environment that can influence development. Clinical method Flexible, open-ended interview method in which questions are modified in reaction to the child’s responses. Clique Peer group of five to ten children who frequently interact together. Codominance Condition in which individual, unblended characteristics of two alleles are reflected in the phenotype. Coercive cycles Pattern of escalating negative reciprocal interactions. Cognition Processes involved in thinking and mental activity, such as attention, memory, and problem solving. Cognitive-developmental theory Theoretical orientation, most frequently associated with Piaget, emphasizing the active construction of psychological structures to interpret experience. Cohort effects Characteristics shared by individuals growing up in a given sociohistorical context that can influence developmental outcomes. Concept Definition of a set of information on the basis of some general or abstract principle. Concordance rate Percentage of pairs of twins in which both members have a specific trait identified in one twin. Concrete operational stage In Piagetian theory, the third stage of development, from approximately seven to eleven years of age, in which thought is logical when stimuli are physically present. Conditioned response (CR) Learned response that is exhibited to a previously neutral stimulus (CS) as a result of pairing the CS with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Conditioned stimulus (CS) Neutral stimulus that begins to elicit a response similar to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) with which it has been paired. Conscience In Freudian theory, the part of the superego that defines unacceptable behaviors and actions, usually as also defined by the parents. Conservation tasks Problems that require the child to make judgments about the equivalence of two displays; used to assess stage of cognitive development. Control theory Hypothesis about parent-child interactions suggesting that the intensity of one partner’s behavior affects the intensity of the other’s response. Conventional level In Kohlberg’s theory, the second level of moral reasoning, in which the child conforms to the norms of the majority and wishes to preserve the social order. Cooing Vowel-like utterances that characterize the infant’s first attempts to vocalize. Cooperative play Interactive play in which children’s actions are reciprocal. Core knowledge hypothesis The idea that infants possess innate knowledge of certain properties of objects. Correlation coefficient (r) Statistical measure, ranging from +1.00 to –1.00, that summarizes the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables; does not provide information about causation. Correlational study Study that assesses whether changes in one variable are accompanied by systematic changes in another variable. Cross-cultural study Study that compares individuals in different cultural contexts. Cross-fostering study Research study in which children are reared in environments that differ from those of their biological parents. Cross-gender behavior Behavior usually seen in a member of the opposite sex. Term generally is reserved for behavior that is persistently sex atypical. Crossing over Process during the first stage of meiosis when genetic material is exchanged between autosomes. Cross-sectional study A study in which individuals of different ages are examined at the same point in time. Crowd Large group of peers characterized by specific traits or reputation. Crystallized intelligence Mental skills derived from cultural experience. [ return to top ] D Debriefing Providing research participants with a statement of the true goals of a study after initially deceiving them or omitting information about its purposes. Deferred imitation Ability to imitate a model’s behavior hours, days, and even weeks after observation. Delay of gratification Capacity to wait before performing a tempting activity or attaining some highly desired outcome; a measure of ability to regulate one’s own behavior. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Long, spiral staircaselike sequence of molecules created by nucleotides identified with the blueprint for genetic inheritance. Dependent variable Behavior that is measured; suspected effect of an experimental manipulation. Development Physical and psychological changes in the individual over a lifetime. Developmental psychology Systematic and scientific study of changes in human behaviors and mental activities over time. Deviation IQ IQ score computed by comparing the child’s performance with that of a standardization sample. Dishabituation See Recovery from habituation. Disorganized/disoriented attachment Infant-caregiver relations characterized by the infant’s fear of the caregiver, confused facial expressions, and a combination of avoidant and ambivalent attachment behaviors. Display rules The cultural guidelines concerning when, how, and to what degree to display emotions. Dominant allele Allele whose characteristics are reflected in the phenotype even when part of a heterozygous genotype. Its genetic characteristics tend to mask the characteristics of other alleles. Dynamic systems theory A theoretical orientation that explains development as the emerging organization arising from the interaction of many different processes. [ return to top ] E Ecological systems theory Bronfenbrenner’s theory that development is influenced by experiences arising from broader social and cultural systems as well as a child’s immediate surroundings. Ectopic pregnancy Implantation of the fertilized ovum in a location outside of the uterus. Effectance motivation Inborn desire theorized by Robert White to be the basis for the infant’s and child’s efforts to master and gain control of the environment. Egocentrism Preoperational child’s inability to separate his or her own perspective from those of others. Ego ideal In Freudian theory, the part of the superego that defines the positive standards for which an individual strives; acquired via parental rewarding of desired behaviors. Elaboration Memory strategy in which individuals link items to be remembered in the form of an image or a sentence. Elicited imitation A way of assessing memory in which children must reconstruct a unique sequence of actions that they have seen in the past; usually used with preverbal children. Embryonic period Period of prenatal development during which major biological organs and systems form. Begins about the tenth to fourteenth day after conception and ends about the eighth week after conception. Emotions Complex behaviors involving physiological, expressive, and experiential components produced in response to some external or internal event. Empathy An understanding and sharing of the feelings of others. Empiricism Theory that environmental experiences shape the individual; more specifically, that all knowledge is derived from sensory experiences. Episodic memory Memory for events that took place at a specific time and place. Equilibration In Piagetian theory, an innate self-regulatory process that, through accommodation and assimilation, results in more organized and powerful schemes for adapting to the environment. Ethnic identity The sense of belonging to a particular cultural group. Ethnography Set of methods, including observations and interviews, used by researchers to describe the behaviors and underlying meaning systems within a given culture. Ethology Theoretical orientation and discipline concerned with the evolutionary origins of behavior and its adaptive and survival value in animals, including humans. Executive function Portion of the information-processing system that coordinates various component processes in order to achieve some goal. Exosystem In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, environmental settings that indirectly affect the child by influencing the various microsystems forming the child’s immediate environment. Expansion Repetition of a child’s utterance along with more complex forms. Experimental design Research method in which one or more independent variables are manipulated to determine the effect on other, dependent variables. Expressive aphasia Loss of the ability to speak fluently. Expressive characteristics Characteristics associated with emotions or relationships with people; usually considered feminine. Expressive style Type of early language production in which the child uses many social words. Externality effect Tendency for infants younger than two months to focus on the external features of a complex stimulus and explore the internal features less systematically. [ return to top ] F Failure to thrive Label applied to any child whose growth in height or weight is below the third percentile for children of the same age. Fast-mapping Deriving meanings of words from the contexts in which they are spoken. Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) Cluster of fetal abnormalities stemming from mother’s consumption of alcohol; includes growth retardation, defects in facial features, and intellectual retardation. Fetal blood sampling Method of withdrawing blood from the umbilical cord of the fetus. Used to diagnose genetic disorders, especially those that affect the blood. Fetal monitoring device Medical device used to monitor fetal heartbeat during delivery. Fetal period Period of prenatal development, from about the eighth week after conception to birth, marked by rapid growth and preparation of body systems for functioning in the postnatal environment. Field experiment Experiment conducted in a “natural,” real-world setting such as the child’s home or school. Fluid intelligence Biologically based mental abilities that are relatively uninfluenced by cultural experiences. Focus on states Preoperational child’s tendency to treat two or more connected events as unrelated. Formal operational stage In Piagetian theory, the last stage of development, from approximately eleven to fifteen years of age, in which thought is abstract and hypothetical. Fragile X syndrome Disorder associated with a pinched region of the X chromosome; a leading genetic cause of mental retardation in males. Fraternal twins Siblings who share the same womb at the same time but originate from two different eggs fertilized by two different sperm cells. Also called dizygotic twins. [ return to top ] G Gametes Sperm cells in males, egg cells in females, normally containing only twenty-three chromosomes. Gender constancy Knowledge, usually gained around age six or seven years, that one’s gender does not change as a result of alterations in appearance, behaviors, or desires. Gender identity Knowledge, usually gained by age three years, that one is male or female. Gender schema Cognitive organizing structure for information relevant to sex typing. Gender stability Knowledge, usually gained by age four years, that one’s gender does not change over time. Gender stereotypes Expectations or beliefs that individuals within a given culture hold about the behaviors characteristic of males and females. Gender-role development Process by which individuals acquire the characteristics and behaviors prescribed by their culture for their sex. Also called sex typing. Gene Large segment of nucleotides within a chromosome that codes for the production of proteins and enzymes. These proteins and enzymes underlie traits and characteristics inherited from one generation to the next. Genetic counseling Medical and counseling specialty concerned with determining and communicating the likelihood that prospective parents will give birth to a baby with a genetic disorder. Genetic screening Systematic search using a variety of tests to detect individuals at developmental risk due to genetic anomalies. Genomic imprinting Instances of genetic transmission in which the expression of a gene is determined by whether the particular allelic form has been inherited from the mother or the father. Genotype Total genetic endowment inherited by an individual. Germinal period Period lasting about ten to fourteen days following conception before the fertilized egg becomes implanted in the uterine wall. Also called period of the zygote. Gestational age Age of fetus derived from onset of mother’s last menstrual period. Glial cells Brain cells that provide the material from which myelin is created, nourish neurons, and provide a scaffolding for neuron migration. Grammar Rules pertaining to the structure of language. [ return to top ] H Habituation Gradual decline in intensity, frequency, or duration of a response over repeated or lengthy occurrences of the same stimulus. Heritability Proportion of variability in the phenotype that is estimated to be accounted for by genetic influences within a known environmental range. Heterozygous Genotype in which two alleles of a gene are different. The effects on a trait will depend on how the two alleles interact. Homozygous Genotype in which two alleles of a gene are identical, thus having the same effects on a trait. Hormones Chemicals produced by various glands that are secreted directly into the bloodstream and can therefore circulate to influence cells in other locations of the body. Human genome Entire inventory of nucleotide base pairs that compose the genes and chromosomes of humans. Hypothetical reasoning Ability to systematically generate and evaluate potential solutions to a problem. [ return to top ] I Identical twins Two individuals who originate from a single zygote (one egg fertilized by one sperm), which early in cell division separates to form two separate cell masses. Also called monozygotic twins. Identity (personal) Broad, coherent, internalized view of who a person is and what a person wants to be, believes, and values that emerges during adolescence. Identity In Eriksonian psychosocial theory, the acceptance of both self and society, a concept that must be achieved at every stage but is especially important during adolescence. Identity crisis Period, usually during adolescence, characterized by considerable uncertainty about the self and the role the individual is to fulfill in society. Imaginary audience Individual’s belief that others are examining and evaluating him or her. Immanent justice Young child’s belief that punishment will inevitably follow a transgression. Implicit leaning Abstract knowledge not available to conscious reflection acquired incidentally from processing structured information. Imprinting Form of learning, difficult to reverse, during a sensitive period in development in which an organism tends to stay near a particular stimulus. Independent variable Variable manipulated by the experimenter; the suspected cause. Individual differences Unique characteristics that distinguish a person from other members of a larger group. Induction Parental control technique that relies on the extensive use of reasoning and explanation as well as the arousal of empathic feelings. Infantile amnesia Failure to remember events from the first two to three years of one’s life. Information processing Theoretical approach that views humans as having a limited ability to process information, much like computers. Informed consent Participant’s formal acknowledgment that he or she understands the purposes, procedures, and risks of a study and agrees to participate in it. Inner speech Interiorized form of private speech. Instrumental characteristics Characteristics associated with acting on the world; usually considered masculine. Instrumental competence Child’s display of independence, self-control, achievement orientation, and cooperation. Intelligence quotient (IQ) Numerical score received on an intelligence test. Interactive synchrony Reciprocal, mutually engaging cycles of caregiver-child behaviors. Interagent consistency Consistency in application of disciplinary strategies among different caregivers. Intermodal perception Coordination of sensory information to perceive or make inferences about the characteristics of an object. Internal working models of relationships Mental frameworks of the quality of relationships with others, developed as a result of early ongoing interactions with caregivers. Intersubjectivity Mutual attention and shared communication that take place between the child and caregiver or learner and expert. Intra-agent consistency Consistency in a single caregiver’s application of discipline from one situation to the next. [ return to top ] J Joint attention Episodes in which the child shares the same “psychological space” with another individual. [ return to top ] K Karyotype Pictorial representation of an individual’s chromosomes. Kinetic cue Perceptual information provided by movement of eyes, head, or body. Important source of information for depth perception. [ return to top ] L Lagging-down growth Decrease in growth rate after some factor, such as a congenital or hormonal disorder, has accelerated the expected, normal growth rate. Landmark Distinctive location or cue that the child uses to negotiate or represent a spatial environment. Lateralization Process by which one hemisphere of the brain comes to dominate the other, for example, processing of language in the left hemisphere or of spatial information in the right hemisphere. Learned helplessness Belief that one has little control over situations, perhaps because of lack of ability or inconsistent outcomes. Learning Relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of such experiences as exploration, observation, and practice. Limited-resource model Information-processing model that emphasizes the allocation of finite energy within the cognitive system. Long-term memory Memory that holds information for extended periods of time. Longitudinal study Research in which the same participants are repeatedly tested over a period of time, usually years. [ return to top ] M Macrosystem In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, major historical events and the broad values, practices, and customs promoted by a culture. Mastery orientation Belief that achievements are based on one’s own efforts rather than on luck or other factors beyond one’s control. Maternal blood screening Tests performed on a woman’s blood to determine if the fetus she is carrying has an increased risk for some types of chromosomal and metabolic disorders. Means-ends behavior Deliberate behavior employed to attain a goal. Meiosis Process of cell division that forms the gametes; normally results in twenty-three chromosomes in each human egg and sperm cell rather than the full complement of forty-six chromosomes. Memory span Number of stimulus items that can be recalled after a brief interval of time. Memory strategy Mental activity, such as rehearsal, that enhances memory performance. Menarche First occurrence of menstruation. Mesosystem In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, the environment provided by the interrelationships among the various settings of the microsystem. Meta-analysis Statistical examination of a body of research studies to assess the effect of the common central variable. Metacognition Awareness and knowledge of cognitive processes. Metalinguistic awareness Ability to reflect on language as a communication tool and on the self as a user of language. Metamemory Understanding of memory as a cognitive process. Metaphor Figurative language in which a term is transferred from the object it customarily designates to describe a comparable object or event. Microgenetic approach A research approach in which detailed trial-to-trial observations are made of individual children’s performance. Microsystem In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, the immediate environment provided in such settings as the home, school, workplace, and neighborhood. Mitosis Process of cell division that takes place in most cells of the human body and results in a full complement of identical material in the forty-six chromosomes in each cell. Moral realism In Piaget’s theory of moral development, the first stage of moral reasoning, in which moral judgments are made on the basis of the consequences of an act. Also called heteronomy. Moral relativism In Piaget’s theory of moral development, the second stage of moral reasoning, in which moral judgments are made on the basis of the actor’s intentions. Also called autonomy. Morality of care and responsibility Tendency to make moral judgments on the basis of concern for others. Morality of justice Tendency to make moral judgments on the basis of reason and abstract principles of equity. Morphology Rules of how to combine the smallest meaningful units of language to form words. Motherese/parentese Simple, repetitive, high-pitched speech of caregivers to young children; includes many questions. Multistore model Information-processing model that describes a sequence of mental structures through which information flows. Mutation Sudden change in molecular structure of a gene; may occur spontaneously or be caused by an environmental event such as radiation. Myelin Sheath of fatty cells that insulates and speeds neural impulses by about tenfold. [ return to top ] N Natural domains Concepts or categories that children acquire especially rapidly and effortlessly. Naturalistic observation Study in which observations of naturally occurring behavior are made in real-life settings. Nature-nurture debate Ongoing theoretical controversy over whether development is the result of the child’s genetic endowment or the kinds of experiences the child has had. Negative correlation Relationship in which changes in one variable are accompanied by systematic changes in another variable in the opposite direction. Negative punishment Removal or loss of a desired stimulus or reward that weakens or decreases the frequency of a preceding response. Negative reinforcement Removal of an aversive stimulus that strengthens a preceding response. Neuron Nerve cell within the central nervous system that is electrochemically designed to transmit messages between cells. Niche picking Tendency to actively select an environment compatible with a genotype. Nominals Words that label objects, people, or events; the first type of words most children produce. Norms Measures of average values and variations in some aspect of development, such as physical size and motor skill development, in relation to age. Nucleotide Repeating basic building block of DNA consisting of nitrogen-based molecules of adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine. [ return to top ] O Object concept Realization that objects exist even when they are not within view. Also called object permanence. Observational learning Learning that takes place by simply observing another person’s behavior. Observer bias Tendency of researchers to interpret ongoing events as being consistent with their research hypotheses. One-to-one correspondence Understanding that two sets are equivalent in number if each element in one set can be mapped onto a unique element in the second set with none left over. Operation In Piagetian theory, a mental action such as reversibility. Operational definition Specification of variables in terms of measurable properties. Ordinality Principle that a number refers to an item’s order within a set. Organization In Piagetian theory, the inborn tendency for structures and processes to become more systematic and coherent. Also memory strategy in which individuals reorder items to be remembered on the basis of category or some other higher-order relationship. Overextension Tendency to apply a label to a broader category than the term actually signifies. Overregularization Inappropriate application of syntactic rules to words and grammatical forms that show exceptions. [ return to top ] P Parallel play Side-by-side, independent play that is not interactive. Participant reactivity Tendency of individuals who know they are under observation to alter natural behavior. Peer Companion of approximately the same age and developmental level. Perception Process of organizing and interpreting sensory information. Perceptual differentiation Process postulated by Eleanor and James Gibson in which experience contributes to the ability to make increasingly finer perceptual discriminations and to distinguish stimulation arising from each sensory modality. Perinatal period Period beginning about the seventh month of pregnancy and continuing until about four weeks after birth. Personal fable Belief that one is unique and perhaps even invulnerable. Perspective taking Ability to take the role of another person and understand what that person is thinking, is feeling, or knows. Phenotype Observable and measurable characteristics and traits of an individual; a product of the interaction of the genotype with the environment. Phenylketonuria (PKU) Recessive genetic disorder in which phenylalanine, an amino acid, fails to be metabolized. Unless dietary changes are made to reduce intake of phenylalanine, severe mental retardation occurs. Phoneme Smallest unit of sound that changes the meanings of words. Phonology Fundamental sound units and combinations of units in a given language. Placenta Support organ formed by cells from both blastocyst and uterine lining; serves as exchange site for oxygen, nutrients, and waste products. Plasticity Capacity of immature systems, including regions of the brain and the individual neurons within those regions, to take on different functions as a result of experience. Polygenic Phenotypic characteristic influenced by two or more genes. Positive correlation Relationship in which changes in one variable are accompanied by systematic changes in another variable in the same direction. Positive punishment An aversive stimulus that serves to weaken or decrease the frequency of a preceding response. Positive reinforcement Occurrence of a stimulus that strengthens a preceding response. Also known as a reward. Postconventional level In Kohlberg’s theory, the third level of moral reasoning, in which laws are seen as the result of a social contract and individual principles of conscience may emerge. Postnatal development Period in development following birth. Power assertion Parental control technique that relies on the use of forceful commands, physical punishment, and removal of material objects or privileges. Pragmatics Rules for using language effectively within a social context. Preconventional level In Kohlberg’s theory, the first level of moral reasoning, in which morality is motivated by the avoidance of punishments and attainment of rewards. Prenatal development Period in development from conception to the onset of labor. Prepared childbirth Type of childbirth that involves practicing procedures during pregnancy and childbirth that are designed to minimize pain and reduce the need for medication during delivery. Also called natural childbirth. Primacy effect Tendency for individuals to display good recall for early items in a list. Primary reinforcer Reward that gratifies biological needs or drives. Private speech Children’s vocalized speech to themselves that directs behavior. Processing speed The rapidity with which cognitive activities are carried out. Production deficiency Failure of children under age seven years to spontaneously generate memory strategies. Productive language Meaningful language spoken or otherwise produced by an individual. Prosocial behavior Positive social action performed to benefit others. Prosody Patterns of intonation, stress, and rhythm that communicate meaning in speech. Protodeclarative communication Use of a gesture to call attention to an object or event. Protoimperative communication Use of a gesture to issue a command or request. Proximodistal development Pattern in which organs and systems of the body near the middle tend to develop earlier than those near the periphery. Psychometric model Theoretical perspective that quantifies individual differences in test scores to establish a rank order of abilities. Psychosocial theory of development Erikson’s theory that personality develops through eight stages of adaptive functioning to meet the demands framed by society. Puberty Developmental period during which a sequence of physical changes takes place that transforms the person from an immature individual to one capable of reproduction. [ return to top ] Q Quasi-experiment Study in which the assignment of individuals to experimental groups is determined by their natural experiences. Questionnaire Set of standardized questions administered to individuals in written form. [ return to top ] R Random assignment Use of principles of chance to assign participants to treatment and control groups; avoids systematic bias. Range of reaction Range of phenotypic differences possible as a result of different environments interacting with a specific genotype. Realism Inability to distinguish between mental and physical entities. Recall memory Ability to reproduce stimuli that one has previously encountered. Recast Repetition of a child’s utterance with grammatical corrections. Recency effect Tendency for individuals to show good recall for the last few items in a list. Receptive aphasia Loss of the ability to comprehend speech. Receptive language Ability to comprehend spoken speech. Recessive allele Allele whose characteristics do not tend to be expressed when part of a heterozygous genotype. Its genetic characteristics tend to be masked by other alleles. Recognition memory Ability to identify whether a stimulus has been previously encountered. Recovery from habituation Reinstatement of the intensity, frequency, or duration of a response to a stimulus that has changed. Also called dishabituation. Referential communication Communication in situations that require the speaker to describe an object to a listener or to evaluate the effectiveness of a message. Referential style Type of early language production in which the child uses mostly nominals. Reflex Involuntary movement in response to touch, light, sound, or other form of stimulation; controlled by subcortical neural mechanisms. Rehearsal Memory strategy that involves repetition of items to be remembered. Reliability Degree to which a measure will yield the same results if administered repeatedly. Representational insight The child’s ability to understand that a symbol or model can stand for a real-life event. Reunion behavior The child’s style of greeting the caregiver after a separation. Reversibility In Piagetian theory, the ability to mentally reverse or negate an action or a transformation. Rhythmical stereotypies Repeated sequences of movements, such as leg kicking, hand waving, or head banging, that have no apparent goal. Rough-and-tumble play Active, physical play that carries no intent of imposing harm on another child. [ return to top ] S Saccade Rapid eye movement to inspect an object or view a stimulus in the periphery of the visual field. Scaffolding Temporary aid provided by one person to encourage, support, and assist a lesser-skilled person in carrying out a task or completing a problem. The model provides knowledge and skills that are learned and gradually transferred to the learner. Scheme In Piagetian theory, the mental structure underlying a coordinated and systematic pattern of behaviors or thinking applied across similar objects or situations. Scientific method Use of objective, measurable, and repeatable techniques to gather information. Script Organized scheme or framework for commonly experienced events. Secondary reinforcer Object or person that attains rewarding value because of its association with a primary reinforcer. Secular trend Consistent pattern of change over generations. Secure attachment Attachment category defined by the infant’s distress at separation from the caregiver and enthusiastic greeting upon his or her return. The infant also displays stranger anxiety and uses the caregiver as a secure base for exploration. Secure base An attachment behavior in which the infant explores the environment but periodically checks back with the caregiver. Self Realization of being an independent, unique, stable, and self-reflective entity; the beliefs, knowledge, feelings, and characteristics the individual ascribes to himself or herself. Self-concept Perceptions, conceptions, and values one holds about oneself. Self-conscious emotion Emotion such as guilt and envy that appears later in childhood and requires more knowledge about the self as related to others. Self-control Ability to comply with sociocultural prescriptions concerning ethical or moral behavior. Self-esteem One’s feelings of worth; extent to which one senses one’s attributes and actions are good, desired, and valued. Self-regulation Process by which children come to control their own behaviors in accordance with the standards of their caregivers and community, especially in the absence of other adults. Semantic bootstrapping hypothesis Idea that children derive information about syntax from the meanings of words. Semantic memory Memory for general concepts or facts. Semantics Meanings of words or combinations of words. Sensation Basic information in the external world that is processed by the sensory receptors. Sensitive period Brief period during which specific kinds of experiences have significant positive or negative consequences for development and behavior. Also called critical period. Sensorimotor stage In Piagetian theory, the first stage of cognitive development, from birth to approximately two years of age, in which thought is based primarily on action. Sensory register Memory store that holds information for very brief periods of time in a form that closely resembles the initial input. Separation anxiety Distress the infant shows when the caregiver leaves the immediate environment. Sequential study Study that examines groups of children of different ages over a period of time; usually shorter than a longitudinal study. Sex segregation Clustering of individuals into same-sex groups. Sex typicality Extent to which a behavior is usually associated with one sex as opposed to the other. Sickle cell disease Genetic blood disorder common in regions of Africa and other areas where malaria is found and among descendants of these regions. Abnormal blood cells carry insufficient oxygen. Sickle cell trait Symptoms shown by those possessing a heterozygous genotype for sickle cell anemia. Single-case design Study that follows only one or a few participants over a period of time, with an emphasis on systematic collection of data. Skeletal maturity Extent to which cartilage has ossified to form bone; provides the most accurate estimate of how much additional growth will take place in the individual. Smooth visual pursuit Consistent, unbroken tracking by the eyes that serves to maintain focus on a moving visual target. Social comparison Process in which individuals define themselves in relation to the skills, attributes, and qualities of others; an important contributor to self-concept during middle childhood. Social conventions Behavioral rules that regulate social interactions, such as dress codes and degrees of formality in speech. Social learning theory Theoretical approach emphasizing the importance of learning through observation and imitation of behaviors modeled by others. Social policy The programs and plans established by local, regional, or national public and private organizations and agencies designed to achieve a particular social purpose or goal. Social pretend play Play that makes use of imaginary and symbolic objects and social roles, often enacted among several children. Also called sociodramatic play. Social referencing Looking to another individual for emotional cues in interpreting a strange or ambiguous event. Socialization Process by which children acquire the social knowledge, skills, and attitudes valued by the larger society. Sociohistorical theory Vygotsky’s developmental theory emphasizing the importance of cultural tools, symbols, and ways of thinking that the child acquires from more knowledgeable members of the community. Sociometric nomination Peer assessment measure in which children are asked to name a specified number of peers who fit a certain criterion, such as “peers you would like to walk home with.” Sociometric rating scale Peer assessment measure in which children rate peers on a number of social dimensions. Solitary play Individual play, performed without regard for what others are doing. Sound localization Ability to determine a sound’s point of origin. Spermarche The first ejaculation of sperm by males entering puberty. Stage Developmental period during which the organization of thought and behavior is qualitatively different from that of an earlier or later period. Stereopsis Ability to perceive a single image of an object even though perceptual input is binocular and differs slightly for each eye; significant source of cues for depth perception. Stereotype threat The psychological impact of negative social stereotypes in an individual. Strange Situation Standardized test that assesses the quality of infant-caregiver attachment. Stranger anxiety Fear or distress an infant shows at the approach of an unfamiliar person. Structured interview Standardized set of questions administered orally to participants. Structured observation Study in which behaviors are recorded as they occur within a situation constructed by the experimenter, usually in the laboratory. Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) Sudden, unexplained death of an infant or a toddler as a result of cessation of breathing during sleep. Syntax Grammatical rules that dictate how words can be combined. Systems theory Model for understanding the family that emphasizes the reciprocal interactions among various members. [ return to top ] T Telegraphic speech Early two-word speech that contains few modifiers, prepositions, or other connective words. Temperament Stable, early-appearing constellation of individual personality attributes believed to have a hereditary basis; includes sociability, emotionality, and activity level. Teratogen Any environmental agent that can cause deviations in prenatal development. Consequences may range from behavioral problems to death. Test bias Idea that the content of traditional standardized tests does not adequately measure the competencies of children from diverse cultural backgrounds. Theory Set of ideas or propositions that helps to organize or explain observable phenomena. Triarchic theory Theory developed by Robert Sternberg that intelligence consists of three major components: (1) the ability to adapt to the environment, (2) the ability to employ fundamental information-processing skills, and (3) the ability to deal with novelty and automatize processing. Trisomy Condition in which an extra chromosome is present. Turn taking Alternating vocalization by parent and child. Turnabout Element of conversation that requests a response from the child. [ return to top ] U Ultrasonography Method of using sound wave reflections to obtain a representation of the developing fetus. Used to estimate gestational age and detect fetal physical abnormalities. Umbilical cord Conduit of blood vessels through which oxygen, nutrients, and waste products are transported between placenta and embryo. Unconditioned response (UCR) Response that is automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Stimulus that, without prior training, elicits a reflexlike response (unconditioned response). Underextension Application of a label to a narrower class of objects than the term signifies. Uninvolved parent Parent who is emotionally detached from the child and focuses on his or her own needs as opposed to the child’s. Utilization deficiency Phenomenon by which a memory strategy, when first applied, may fail to improve memory in a noticeable way. [ return to top ] V Validity Degree to which an assessment procedure actually measures the variable under consideration. Variable Factor having no fixed or constant value in a given situation. Vergence Ability of the eyes to rotate in opposite directions to fixate on objects at different distances; improves rapidly during first few months after birth. Viability Ability of the baby to survive outside the mother’s womb. Visual accommodation Visuomotor process by which small involuntary muscles change the shape of the lens of the eye so that images of objects seen at different distances are brought into focus on the retina. Visual acuity Ability to make fine discriminations among elements in a visual array by detecting contours, transitions in light patterns that signal borders and edges. Visual cliff Experimental apparatus used to test depth perception in which the surface on one side of a glass-covered table is made to appear far below the surface on the other side. Vocabulary spurt Period of rapid word acquisition that typically occurs early in language development. [ return to top ] W Wernicke’s area Portion of the cerebral cortex that controls language comprehension. Williams syndrome Dominant genetic disorder involving the deletion of a set of genes that results in affected individuals typically having a strong social orientation, good musical ability, and some unusual capabilities; accompanied by mental retardation and severe deficits in numerical and spatial ability. Working memory Short-term memory store in which mental operations such as rehearsal and categorization take place. [ return to top ] X X chromosome Larger of the two sex chromosomes associated with genetic determination of sex. Normally females have two X chromosomes and males only one. [ return to top ] Y Y chromosome Smaller of the two sex chromosomes associated with genetic determination of sex. Normally males have one Y chromosome and females none. [ return to top ]





	Chapter Outlines

	Concept/Application Questions

	Concept/Application Answers

	See For Yourself

	What Do You Think

	Key Themes

	Flashcards

	Glossary

	Pre and Post Tests

	Learning Objectives

	ACE Quizzes



	Netlabs

	Thinking Critically

	Evaluating Research



	Psych in the News

	Psych on the Shelves

	Psych on Screen