1. CONCEPTS AND THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
   A motive, acting as an intervening variable, may provide a single reason for the occurrence of many different behaviors and may explain fluctuations in behavior over time.
   1. Sources of Motivation
      Four factors can serve as sources of motivation: biological, emotional, cognitive, and social.
   2. Instinct Theory and Its Descendants
      Instincts were once thought to be a major factor in motivation. Instinct theory, however, may provide a description, rather than an explanation, of behavior. In addition, instinct theory failed to accommodate the role of learning in human behavior.
      
      Evolution and Mate Selection. The evolutionary approach suggests that inborn desires to pass on our genes cause women to focus on men's resource acquisition capacity and men to focus on women's reproductive capacity. Surveys have supported this hypothesis; however, mate selection patterns may reflect social and economic influences, not innate biological needs.
   3. Drive Reduction Theory
      According to drive reduction theory, primary and secondary drives reduce biological needs caused by an imbalance in homeostasis.
   4. Arousal Theory
      Arousal theories state that people are motivated to maintain their optimal level of arousal, increasing arousal when it is too low and decreasing it when it is too high. Optimal arousal levels vary from person to person.
   5. Incentive Theory
      According to incentive theory, behavior is goal-directed; we behave in ways that allow us to attain desirable stimuli and avoid negative stimuli. The value of a goal is influenced by biological and social factors.
2. HUNGER AND EATING
   1. Biological Signals for Hunger and Satiety
      1. Signals from the Stomach. The stomach may partially control the hunger motive, but the cues may operate primarily when people are very hungry or very full.
      2. Signals from the Blood. The brain monitors blood content for the presence of nutrients (glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids) and hormones (cholecystokinin, insulin, and leptin) whose presence communicates hunger or satiety.
   2. Hunger and the Brain
      The lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus and the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) play roles in the regulation of hunger and eating, but control of eating is more complicated than that alone. The hypothalamus may be involved in the homeostatic maintenance of a set point. Neurotransmitter activity in the PVN may selectively motivate eating of different kinds of foods.
   3. Flavor, Cultural Learning, and Food Selection
      Flavor and variety are important in initiating eating. More food will be eaten when a variety of tastes is offered. Classical conditioning (pairing the taste with the nutritional value) influences the preference for a variety of foods. The sight of food can elicit conditioned responses (the secretion of saliva, gastric juices, and insulin) that are associated with eating. Specific hungers, the desire for certain foods at certain times, may reflect the biological need for a nutrient found in those foods. Finally, social cues tell people what and how much are appropriate to eat in certain social situations.
   4. Eating Disorders
      1. Obesity. Obesity is a condition of severe overweight that can contribute to diabetes, high blood pressure, and increased risk of heart attack. Physiological factors that may predispose people to obesity include body type, more and larger fat cells, and a higher set point. Psychological factors include maladaptive reactions to stress.
      2. Anorexia Nervosa. This is an eating disorder characterized by a preoccupation with food and self-starvation, and dramatic weight loss. Physical causes are unknown, but psychological factors that contribute to anorexia nervosa include a preoccupation with thinness.
      3. Bulimia nervosa. This eating disorder is characterized by binging and purging and is usually not life-threatening. The victim may be thin, normal weight, or overweight. Bulimia nervosa appears to be caused by cultural factors, emotional problems, and possibly malfunctioning biological mechanisms.
3. SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
   1. Focus on Research Methods: A Survey of Human Sexual Behavior
      The National Health and Social Life Survey used face-to-face interviews with a representative sample of people aged 18 to 59 in the United States. The survey found that most people have sex once a week in monogamous relationships and that about a third have had sex only a few times or not at all in the past year. People in committed monogamous relationships had the most frequent and the most satisfying sex.
   2. The Biology of Sex
      Masters and Johnson's in-depth study of human sexuality resulted in a description of the sexual response cycle. Although all sex hormones circulate in both males and females, some predominate in each sex: female hormones include estrogens (estradiol) and progestins (progesterone); male hormones are androgens (testosterone). Sex hormones have both brain structure organization and behavioral activation effects. Estrogen activates females' sexual interest, and androgens may activate sexual interest in both sexes.
   3. Social and Cultural Factors in Sexuality
      Sexual motivation and behaviors are learned as part of gender roles, early relationships with nurturing adults, and cultural expectations. Educational programs generated by concern over sexual transmission of the AIDS virus have recently influenced sexual attitudes and practices.
   4. Sexual Orientation
      Sexual activities can be heterosexual, bisexual, or homosexual. These orientations appear to have strong biological roots.
   5. Thinking Critically: Does Biology Determine Sexual Orientation?
      What am I being asked to believe or accept?
      
      Perhaps genes dictate sexual orientation.
      
      What evidence is available to support the assertion?
      
      In a study of homosexual men with brothers, 52 percent of the identical twin brothers were homosexual or bisexual; however, only 22 percent of the nonidentical and 11 percent of the adoptive brothers were homosexual or bisexual. Similar results are found for male identical twins reared apart. Prenatal hormonal influences may affect sexual orientation. Finally, the sexual orientation of children's caregivers doesn't appear to have a significant effect on the children's subsequent orientation.
      
      Are there alternative ways of interpreting the evidence?
      
      Remember, although a correlation exists between genetics and sexual orientation, it does not prove that one caused the other. Possibly, the shared genes determined other nonsexual behavior, which due to environmental factors resulted in homosexual or bisexual behavior. Also, almost 50 percent of the identical twins had different sexual orientations. Finally, the internal and external physical differences could be the result of their behavior and not just genetics.
      
      What additional evidence would help to evaluate the alternatives?
      
      Researching sexual orientation should extend beyond the study of genetic characteristics to compare and contrast personality, cognitive, social, and developmental attributes of people with different orientations.
      
      What conclusions are most reasonable?
      
      Sexual orientation results from the complex interplay of both genetic and nongenetic mechanisms.
      
      
   6. Sexual Dysfunctions
      Sexual dysfunction exists when a person's desire or ability to have satisfying sexual activity is inhibited. The most common sexual dysfunction in males is erectile disorder and in females is arousal disorder.
4. ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
   We work because of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The desire for approval, admiration, and other types of positive evaluation from ourselves and others motivates our behavior.
   1. Need for Achievement
      People with a high need achievement are motivated to master tasks and take great pride in doing so.
      1. Individual Differences. People with a high need to achieve set challenging but realistic goals that have clear outcomes. They like feedback from competent critics. In contrast, people with low achievement needs seem to enjoy success because they have avoided failure.
      2. Development of Achievement Motivation. The need for achievement appears to be largely learned from parents and other cultural arenas.
   2. Goal Setting and Achievement Motivation
      Goals influence motivation, especially the amount of effort, persistence, attention, and planning we devote to a task.
   3. Achievement and Success in the Workplace
      Workers tend to be more satisfied and productive if they are encouraged to participate in decision making, given problems to solve on their own, taught more than one skill, given individual responsibility, given public recognition, and allowed to set and achieve goals. Effective goals are those that are personally meaningful, specific, set by the employees, and rewarded.
   4. Achievement and Subjective Well-Being
      People tend to have a characteristic level of happiness, or subjective well-being, which is not necessarily related to the attainment of money, status, or other material goods.
5. RELATIONS AND CONFLICTS AMONG MOTIVES
   1. Maslow’s Hierarchy
      Abraham Maslow proposed that there are five levels of motives, or needs, arranged in a hierarchy: physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualization. We must satisfy needs or motives low on the hierarchy before we are motivated to satisfy needs at the next level.
   2. Linkages: Conflicting Motives and Stress
      Several motives that act at the same time complicate life and can be a source of stress. Four basic types of motivational conflicts are approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance, and multiple approach-avoidance.
   3. Opponent Processes, Motivation, and Emotion
      According to opponent-process theory, any reaction to a stimulus is automatically followed by an opposite reaction, called the opponent process. After repeated exposure to the same stimulus, the initial reaction weakens, and the opponent process becomes stronger. We are motivated to seek a pleasurable opponent process (such as relief) or to avoid a negative one by quickly repeating exposure to the initial stimulus (such as bungee jumping).
6. THE NATURE OF EMOTION
   1. Defining Characteristics
      Emotions have several defining features. Emotions are transitory (not constant). They are either positive or negative. They are partially dependent on your cognitive appraisal or interpretation of a situation. They tend to alter thought processes such as attention. They create a tendency toward certain actions. However, they are passions, not actions, because you can decide to act, but passions happen whether you want them to or not. Emotions are also felt as happening to the self. The objective aspects of emotion include learned and innate expressive displays and internal bodily responses.
   2. The Biology of Emotion
      1. Brain Mechanisms. Activity in the limbic system is important to the experience of emotion. Voluntary and involuntary facial expressions are controlled by two different areas of the brain: the pyramidal motor system and the extrapyramidal motor system, respectively. Most researchers agree that the right hemisphere is activated during emotions and contributes more to facial expressions than the left does. However, some investigators purport that the left hemisphere is more active than the right in experiencing positive emotions.
      2. Mechanisms of the Autonomic Nervous System. Signals from the autonomic nervous system (ANS) modify the ongoing activity of the organs and glands in the body. The ANS is made up of two branches—the sympathetic and the parasympathetic systems—both of which communicate with all the organs and glands in the body. Because of different neurotransmitters used at the target organs, the two branches have opposite effects. The parasympathetic system initiates activity related to the nourishment and growth of the body. The sympathetic system prepares the body for vigorous activity and stimulates the adrenal medulla to release norepinephrine and epinephrine into the bloodstream, which in turn stimulates all the target organs of the sympathetic system. The result is the fight-or-flight syndrome. Although you are not conscious of ANS activity, you can consciously alter it.
7. THEORIES OF EMOTION
   1. James’s Peripheral Theory
      1. Observing Peripheral Responses. According to this theory, people experience emotion based on observations of their own physical behavior and peripheral responses.
      2. Evaluating James’s Theory. If the James theory is correct, there should be a unique peripheral physiological response for every emotion, and people who cannot feel their peripheral responses should not experience emotion. According to the facial-feedback hypothesis, those incapable of feeling peripheral responses can get all the physiological information necessary to perceive an emotion from facial expressions.
      3. Lie Detection. The use of a polygraph as a lie detector is based upon the assumption that there is a link between lying and emotions and that patterns of physiological arousal will distinguish true from false statements. However, polygraph results are not 100 percent accurate.
   2. Cannon’s Central Theory
      According to this theory, emotion starts in the thalamus and is then passed simultaneously to the cerebral cortex, where it becomes conscious, and to the autonomic nervous system. Recent evidence suggests that the thalamus does not produce the direct central experience of emotion but that different parts of the central nervous system (for example, the amygdala, the dopamine systems, and the locus coeruleus) may be activated for different emotions and for different aspects of the total emotional experience.
   3. Cognitive Theories
      1. Schachter’s modification of James’s theory suggests that emotions are produced both by feedback from peripheral responses and by a cognitive appraisal of what caused those responses. Cognitively appraising, or attributing, the source of arousal to a specific cause dictates the specific emotion you experience. If you attribute physiological arousal to a nonemotional cause, your experience of emotion should be reduced. If you experience artificially produced arousal, you should experience emotion and attribute it to the situation at hand.
      2. Transfer of Excitation. When arousal from one experience carries over to an independent emotional situation, it is transferred excitation. People sometimes attribute prior arousal to the new situation at hand, thereby intensifying their present emotion.
      3. Conclusions. Emotion has both a physiological and a cognitive component. There also appears to be some direct experiencing of emotion by the brain, independent of physiological arousal. It is not yet known which component is primarily responsible for emotion.
8. COMMUNICATING EMOTION
   Facial movements and expressions play the primary role in communicating human emotions.
   1. Innate Expressions of Emotion
      Two types of evidence support a Darwinian proposal that states that certain emotions are innate: Infants show facial expressions appropriate to their current state, and people of all cultures show similar facial responses to show certain similar emotional stimuli.
   2. Social and Cultural Influences on Emotional Expression
      Culture affects the ways in which emotions are expressed.
      1. Learning About Emotions. People begin to communicate some emotions by learning emotion cultures and by undergoing operant shaping.
      2. Social Referencing. People use social referencing in an ambiguous situation to determine how to react.