Bernstein et al., Psychology, 6/e Keyterms

Textbook Site for:

Psychology, Sixth Edition
Douglas A. Bernstein - University of South Florida and University of Southampton
Louis A. Penner - University of South Florida
Alison Clarke-Stewart - University of California, Irvine
Edward J. Roy - University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Keyterms
Chapter 11: Motivation and Emotion

Motivation is defined as those influences that account for the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior. (see introductory section)
Example: What causes us to initiate the movements necessary to get up from the couch and get something to drink? What causes us to persist in our work, sometimes to the point of staying up all night? Why do some people exert intense effort and others no effort at all? These are the kinds of questions asked by people studying motivation.
A motive is a reason or purpose for behavior. One motive can often account for many behaviors. (see Concepts and Theories of Motivation)
Example: A woman drives a Jaguar, wears expensive sports clothes, and joins a country club. Her motive is to demonstrate that she belongs to a specific group of people who are quite wealthy.
Instincts are automatic, involuntary, and unlearned behavior patterns that are consistently displayed in the presence of specific stimuli. (see Instinct Theory and Its Descendants)
Example: In some species of birds, baby birds instinctively respond to the striped beak of the adult birds by opening their mouths.
Instinct theory proposed that human behavior is caused by instincts. (see Instinct Theory and Its Descendants)
Example: An instinct theorist would say that Nancy wants to have children because she has a reproductive instinct.
Drive reduction theory states that biological needs, which are created by imbalances in homeostasis, produce drives. (see Drive Reduction Theory)
Example: Oscar hasn't had anything to drink for hours. He has a need for fluids, which has caused a drive to find something to drink.
Primary drives are drives that arise from biological needs. (see Drive Reduction Theory)
Example: You have primary drives for obtaining food, water, and warmth. These are basic biological needs.
Secondary drives are learned through operant or classical conditioning. We learn drives that prompt us to obtain objects that are associated with the reduction of a primary drive. (see Drive Reduction Theory)
Example: Joseph lives in Alaska. He has learned that it is necessary to pay his power bill on time (secondary drive) in order to stay warm (primary drive) during the winter.
A drive is a psychological state of arousal that compels us to take action to restore our homeostatic balance. When balance is restored, the drive is reduced. Examples are primary and secondary drives. (see Drive Reduction Theory)
A need is a biological requirement for well-being. (see Drive Reduction Theory)
Example: Because we cannot live without food and water, they are excellent examples of needs.
Homeostasis is the tendency of an organism to maintain its physiological systems at a stable, steady level, or equilibrium, by constantly adjusting to changes in internal or external stimuli. (see Drive Reduction Theory)
Example: Suppose that you had to walk outside in bitterly cold weather. Your body would sense this change in an external stimulus (the cold) and would begin taking action to maintain your temperature. Shivering, an adjustment that generates body heat, would help keep your temperature from dropping.
Arousal is a general internal level of activation reflected in the state of several physiological systems. (see Arousal Theory)
Example: After the announcement about the pop quiz, Paola's heart rate, muscle tension, and brain activity increased.
Arousal theories state that people are motivated to behave in ways that maintain an optimal level of arousal. The level of arousal considered optimal varies from person to person. (see Arousal Theory)
Example: Jorge is sitting in his office after a twelve-hour day, unhappy and bored. His level of arousal is too low. He decides to take a vacation in a country he has never visited. Toward the end of his vacation, he begins to look forward to getting back to work. Now Jorge's level of arousal is too high. He wants to go back to a well-known environment where his arousal level will decrease.
Incentive theory states that human behavior is goal directed; we act to obtain positive stimuli and avoid negative stimuli. Positive stimuli or incentives vary from person to person and can change over time. (see Incentive Theory)
Example: When Joanna and David were first married, they saved money to buy a house (incentive). Now their mortgage is paid, and buying a house is no longer an incentive that guides their behavior. Instead, they save money to take vacations in Europe.
Hunger is the state of wanting to eat. Stomach cues, signals carried by the blood, and hypothalamus activity indicate when we should eat. (see Hunger and Eating)
Satiety is the state of no longer wanting to eat. It is triggered by the brain recognizing nutrients and hormones in the bloodstream. (see Hunger and Eating)
Obesity is a condition of severe overweight and can contribute to diabetes, high blood pressure, and increased risk of heart attack. (see Eating Disorders)
Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by an obsession with eating and self-starvation, sometimes to the point of death. Psychological factors associated with anorexia include a preoccupation with thinness and a distorted body image. (see Eating Disorders)
Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder in which a person consumes large quantities of food (binges) and then attempts to eliminate the food (purges) through vomiting or laxatives. (see Eating Disorders)
The sexual response cycle is the pattern of arousal during and after sexual activity. (see The Biology of Sex)
Sex hormones influence our motivation to participate in sexual activity. Examples are estrogens, progestins, and androgens. (see The Biology of Sex)
Estrogens are female hormones. (see The Biology of Sex)
Progestins are female hormones. (see The Biology of Sex)
Androgens are male hormones. Androgens are found in both males and females and play a role in sexual motivation. Testosterone is the principal androgen. (see The Biology of Sex)
Heterosexual activity is sexual interaction with people of the opposite sex. (see Sexual Orientation)
Bisexual activity is sexual interaction with people of both sexes. (see Sexual Orientation)
Homosexual activity is sexual interaction with people of the same sex. (see Sexual Orientation)
Sexual dysfunctions are conditions in which a person's ability or desire to have sex is diminished or gone. The most common sexual dysfunctions in men and women are, respectively, the erectile disorder and arousal disorder. (see Sexual Dysfunctions)
Need achievement is reflected in the degree to which people establish specific goals, care about meeting those goals with competence, and experience feelings of satisfaction in doing so. People with a high need for achievement prefer honest, even if harsh, criticism from a competent critic over unconstructive but pleasant comments. The development of this need is affected by parents, culture, and school experiences. (see Need for Achievement)
Example: During grade school Kelly chose to join an after-school math activity program that had regular tests in addition to projects. Kelly knew that she was good in math and wanted something new to challenge her.
Subjective well-being refers to a combination of a cognitive judgment of satisfaction with life, the frequent experiencing of positive moods and emotions, and the relatively infrequent experiencing of unpleasant moods and emotions. (see Achievement and Subjective Well-Being)
Example: Jules is generally happy with her life, and rarely feels upset or angry. Jules probably has high subjective well-being.
An emotion is either a positive or a negative experience that is felt with some intensity as happening to the self, is generated in part by a cognitive appraisal of situations, and is accompanied by both learned and innate physical responses. (see Defining Characteristics)
Example: Imagine that your boss unjustly says your work is worthless. Rage wells up inside you because you have worked very hard. The involuntary experience of negative emotion just happens; you do not make it happen. Your cognitive appraisal of the situation is also important. You have determined that your boss is not kidding but is very serious. When in a rage, you may feel your face flush and your heart rate increase (reflexive physical responses).
The sympathetic system, a subdivision of the autonomic nervous system, prepares the body for vigorous activity, such as the fight-or-flight syndrome. (see The Biology of Emotion)
The parasympathetic system, a subdivision of the autonomic nervous system, is involved in activities relating to the growth and nourishment of the body. (see The Biology of Emotion)
Example: Coleman is happily relaxing after a long day of classes. As he watches a comedy on TV, his heart rate slows, but digestion activity increases.
The fight-or-flight syndrome is a series of physiological changes in activity, controlled by the sympathetic nervous system, which prepares the body for combat (fight) or escape (flight) from threatening situations. (see The Biology of Emotion)
Example: A fire alarm startles Coleman. In the fight-or-flight response activated by the sympathetic nervous system, his heart rate and breathing increase. Although he can't feel the difference as he walks to the stairway, his digestive activity has slowed and his blood sugar has increased.
Attribution is the process of identifying the cause of an event through cognitive appraisal. (see Cognitive Theories)
Example: Felicia was smiling as she studied. When she noticed it, she attributed it to her happiness about a trip she was planning for the weekend.
Transferred excitation occurs when arousal from one experience carries over to a different situation. People stay aroused longer than they think they do. If people have been aroused and then encounter a new situation, they may interpret their arousal as an emotional reaction to the new situation. (see Cognitive Theories)
Example: You have just run to class. Just outside the door of the classroom, one of the people working on your group project tells you that she could not finish her part of the paper that is due this period. Normally you would be angry, but your increased arousal from the run intensifies your emotion. You are not just angry; you are furious.
Social referencing occurs in ambiguous social situations. People use others' body language, including posture and facial expressions, to determine appropriate choices for their behavior. (see Social and Cultural Influences on Emotional Expression)





	Chapter Review

	Chapter Outlines

	Learning Objectives

	Web Links

	Test Your Knowledge

	ACE Practice Tests

	Flashcards



	Netlabs

	Web Tutorials

	Thinking Critically

	Evaluating Research

	Thinking Critically

	Vocabulary

	Glossary

	Key Terms

	Psychology Today

	Psych in the News

	Psych on the Shelves

	Psych on Screen