Although the first civilizations rose in Mesopotamia and Egypt, the ancient Hebrews more directly influenced the course of Western civilization.  This chapter will examine the Hebrew thought and art that shaped this development.

The early Hebrews migrated from Mesopotamia to Canaan.  Many then moved to Egypt where they became forced laborers.  Later, these people left Egypt under the leadership of Moses, who transformed them into a nation defined by their belief in Yahweh.  These Hebrews then invaded Canaan, and under the leadership of Saul and David, ultimately established a kingdom.  The policies of Solomon caused this kingdom to break into two states: Israel and Judah.  The former fell to the Assyrians and the latter to the Babylonians (or Chaldeans) who destroyed Solomon's temple in Jerusalem.  The long Babylonian Captivity ended when the Persians conquered Babylon and allowed the Hebrews, or Jews, to return to Palestine and rebuild the temple.  The Jews regained their independence when Persia fell but lost it again to the Romans.  Unsuccessful uprisings against Rome turned the Jews into a dispersed people.  However,  they retained their sense of identity by maintaining their commitment to God and his Law as recorded in the Hebrew Scriptures.

A set of diverse texts by several authors, these Scriptures present a unique conception of God, humanity, and the ethical principles through which people can realize their highest selves.  This vision radically broke with the ancient Near Eastern tradition.  Although the early Hebrews were probably not pure monotheists, they ultimately envisioned one God who, unlike the gods of Mesopotamia and Egypt, was fully sovereign and transcendent.  By demythicizing nature, the Hebrews opened the door to scientific thought.  But rather than develop the speculative philosophical mind like the Greeks, the Hebrews cultivated their emotional experience of God, praising his works and contemplating his will.

From this idea of God, the Hebrews developed a conception of morally autonomous individuality based on voluntary adherence to the Law.  Unlike the Mesopotamians and Egyptians, the Hebrews held that God created humans as free agents who could realize their moral potential by choosing to follow his commandments.  By rejecting idols and magic, by making God the center of life, humans could achieve the freedom of will necessary to make that moral choice.  Crucial to this notion of autonomy is the idea of the covenant.  By accepting the covenant, the Hebrews believed they assumed the responsibility to follow God's Law and introduce it to other nations.  In practice, Hebrew law resembled other Near Eastern legal codes but went beyond those in its respect for the individual.  For example, though Hebrew law, like its Near Eastern counterparts, subordinated women to men, it also codified the respect for women represented in several Bible stories.

Hebrew thought also developed a unique conception of history and the role inspired prophets played.  Unlike other Near Eastern peoples, the Hebrews viewed time as history, a sequence of momentous events.  Commemorated through rituals such as Passover, these events both confirm God's involvement with his people and point toward a glorious future age of peace and prosperity.  Prophets played a central role in this history by pointing out the meaning of events.  The classical prophets, for example, commented on the widening gap in Israel between rich and poor, while the post-exilic prophets responded to the Babylonian Captivity with visions of the coming Messiah and apocalypse.  These prophets assumed the role of God's messenger, preaching social justice and heart-felt commitment to ethical behavior.  They also further developed the Hebrew concept of moral individuality.  Rejecting parochialism for universalism, the prophets achieved a deeper awareness of human personality, a selfhood based on conscious commitment to the Law.

The prophets' words, along with other texts, constitute the literary record called the Bible.   Biblical literature is typically classified as epic, lyric, and wisdom writing.  The epic stories and cycles tell important myths, such as God's creation of the universe, and explore themes including God's justice and mercy, human disobedience, and faithfulness to the covenant.  Biblical lyric voices praise, sorrow, hope, and wonderment.  Among the most famous of these songs are the Psalms composed by David and The Song of Solomon, which explores erotic love.  Biblical wisdom writings examine rules of practical conduct and explore personal morality.  These writings range from advice (Proverbs) to meditations on the incomprehensibility of God (Job).

Because of the prohibition against images, Hebrew art generally took the forms of music, song, and dance.  Hebrew musicians employed a variety of instruments and cantillation forms, developing a tradition that they passed to succeeding generations through a system of ear-marks and, later, accent marks.

The Hebrew tradition is one of the pillars of Western civilization.  Hebrew religious helped shape Christianity, and Hebrew ethics have influenced Western ideas ranging from the value of the individual to moral responsibility.  Hebrew messianic visions influenced Western reform movements, and the language and literature of the Bible remains central to Western literature and common speech.  Finally, Hebrew cantillation influenced Western music through Byzantine musical practice.