Between 1800 and 1914, Western industrialized countries, including the United States, nearly conquered the world. During this period, they brought most of Africa and much of Asia under direct rule. Even in areas they did not control politically, they exerted a preponderance of power. Never before had one civilization assumed so much influence in world history. This development transformed the lives of millions of Africans and Asians. The peoples of these two continents were not passive victims of Western intrusion; they continually resisted this encroachment on their political, social, and economic traditions. This resistance, as much as Western imperialism, reshaped these societies and set the stage for their resurgence in the twentieth century. The following Internet activities will explore these encounters between Westerners and Asians and Africans in the nineteenth century. They will address the three learning objectives laid out at the beginning of Chapter 27: How and why did the West's many-sided, epoch-making expansion occur in the nineteenth century? How did the different peoples of Africa and Asia interact with the industrializing West? What other factors affected the course of development in different regions and countries?

Helpful Hints:

• You may want to begin by printing this page. As you explore different sites, use the printout to refer back to the instructions and questions detailed in each activity.
  
  
• On many web sites you can increase the size of the images by clicking on them. Whenever possible, use the larger images to examine fine details in photographs.
  
  

Activity One:

• Industrialism and imperialism went hand in hand. Western powers had shown a propensity to expand their influence around the world since the sixteenth century. Still, there were limits to this expansion. For example, go to a European Map of Africa, ca 1850. What does this map reveal about how extensively Europeans were familiar with the various civilizations and societies of Africa? With what parts of Africa were they familiar? With what parts were they not? What factors limited Europeans' ability to penetrate and explore the rest of the continent? The maps at AFRICAN POLITICAL ENTITIES BEFORE THE SCRAMBLE and National Geographic: Topographical Map of Africa provide some clues. Compare and contrast European Map of Africa, ca 1850 with Map of Colonial Africa. What had occurred between these sixty-four years? How had Westerners managed to conquer most of Africa by 1914, a continent that was still relatively unknown to them in 1850? What role did the advent of industrialism in the West play in this imperial drive?
  
  

Activity Two:

• To explore the impact of the industrial revolution in the nineteenth century on Western imperialism, review Chapter 26, "European Life in the Age of Nationalism," Activity Two. Much of the "new imperialism" was directly related to the technological breakthroughs occurring in Europe and the United States. Review the charts at Western and Central European Chronology: The Industrial Revolution 1700-1900 and Technology Chronology: The Era of Fossil Fuel Energy Sources 1700 to the Present. Which new technologies furthered Western imperialism? For clues, read the essays and study the images at Ships: The Backbone of the Empire, Railways: Workhorses of the Empire, Pakistan Railways: The History, Bureaucracy on the Wires, and The Gatling Gun. Also see Britannica.com: Rothschild Family. Make a chart that lists the important advances in transportation, communication, weaponry, and credit that allowed Western powers to create and sustain new empires in the late nineteenth century. Next to each category, explain the role these developments played in the "new imperialism" of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
  
  

Activity Three:

• What led Westerners to exploit these advancements in technology? What were the justifications for the aggression Westerners showed toward other civilizations in the late nineteenth century? It is probably best to let the actors speak for themselves. Read the essays at Modern History Sourcebook: Capt. F. D. Lugard: The Rise of Our East African Empire, 1893, Modern History Sourcebook: Jules Ferry (1832-1893): On French Colonial Expansion, Modern History Sourcebook: Program of the Pan-German League, 1890-1898, and Alfred T. Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power on History. The first account was given by a British military officer, the second by a French politician, the third by a German imperialist organization, and the last by an American naval officer. While reading these excerpts, take notes and keep track of the various justifications they offer for the "new imperialism." When you finish, lump these reasons into broad categories, such as economic, moral, and so on. Which reason or reasons do you believe were the most influential? In other words, which justifications do these excerpts mention the most?
  
  

Activity Four:

• Because of technology and willpower, Western nation states created huge overseas empires in the late nineteenth century. To view these new entities, go to Imperialism and the Balance of Power. You can also click on the maps of Africa and China to view more detailed images of imperial holdings in these regions. Study the map at the beginning of this site. Note that all the imperial powers, except Japan, were European or of European ancestry. Imagine these empires connected by trains, shipping lanes, telegraphs, and trade. What kinds of exchanges took place between the rulers and the ruled, besides exchanges of goods and commodities? Answers to this question will be explored in the following activities.
  
  

Activity Five:

• Most native peoples of Africa and Asia resisted Western imperialism, and many kingdoms resorted to warfare to defend their homelands. Most often, the results were ineffective. Read about one of these examples in Africa at Library of Congress: Sudan: THE TURKIYAH, 1821-85, 1884-98. Continue to the next page at Sudan: THE MAHDIYAH, 1884-98. To find out what became of the Mahdi's uprising, go to The Battle of Omdurman-Sudan 1898. For another example of resistance, see Library of Congress: Ghana: The Asante Wars. For a more successful example of resistance, see Library of Congress: Ethiopia: The Reign of Menelik II, 1889-1913.
  
  
• Describe the role of the Mahdi, the Asante rulers, and Menelik II in organizing resistance to European imperialism. What were their goals and strategies? What economic, political, and religious traditions did they use to organize their resistance? What innovations, if any, did they use in their strategies? (For example, did they use any Western technology? Did they make any alliances with Western powers?) Describe how Europeans responded to this resistance. What technological advantages did they exploit? Did they make any alliances with African powers?
  
  
• After reflecting on these questions, write a brief essay (4-5 paragraphs) that explains the reasons for Ethiopia's success at resisting European imperialism and the reasons for the Sudanese and Asante failure. Be sure to discuss the role of technology in this outcome.
  
  

Activity Six:

• As Activity Five demonstrated, Asian and African military resistance to Western imperialism was usually futile. Many other societies turned to other alternatives. Go to The New Nationalist Movement in India by Jabez T. Sunderland. This article appeared in the Atlantic Monthly, a popular journal in the United States, in 1908. According to its author, what was the legacy of British rule in India? Consider the following questions. How had the economy developed? What new technologies had been introduced into the subcontinent? What were living standards like for the average Indian? The author puts the blame for these results squarely on British rule. What specific policies does he blame for India's condition? What is his remedy? Does he advocate turning back the clock and restoring India to old traditions, or does he advocate a more Western-style solution? Does he appeal to India's past to support the idea of a modern Indian nation state?
  
  
• The author claims that there is a generation of Indians ready to govern the subcontinent more justly, especially the Indian National Congress party. Read the essays at History of India: Social and Cultural Awakening, The Indian National Congress [1885 AD - 1905 AD], The Indian National Movement [1905 AD - 1914 AD], and Western Education in Nineteenth-Century India. Which groups made up the Indian National Congress? How had their lives been affected by British rule? What impact did Western ideas have on their sense of Indian nationalism? Write a brief essay that analyzes how India resisted British imperialism from 1885 to 1914. Consider the following questions. What alternatives to direct British rule did the Indian Congress propose? What ideas influenced this demand for more autonomy? Were the ideas strictly Western, or did they also draw from India's past? Which groups led the Congress party? What role did they play in Indian society during British rule?
  
  

Activity Seven:

• The Indian National Congress party eventually led India to independence, and India became a major world power in the twentieth century. The Japanese had a head start. Their history in the nineteenth century confirmed the ideas espoused by the Congress party. The Japanese were able to build a modern industrial state from a blending of Western ideas and technology and native traditions. For more on this strategy, go to Meiji Restoration. (Be sure to visit the hyperlinks at this site.) According to this page, what kind of government did Japanese reformers create in the 1860s and 1870s? How did it reflect Western ideas? How did it reflect native traditions?
  
  
• Go to Taisei Corporation History of 120 Years. Click on the first five hyperlinks and read the text and study the images. Who was Kihachiro Okura? What role did he play in the Meiji era? What do his efforts demonstrate about the ability of non-Western peoples to adapt Western technology?
  
  
• Finally, read the essay at Modern History Sourcebook: Okuma: from Fifty Years of New Japan, 1907-08. How does Okuma explain Japan's success at developing a modern nation state? Does he indicate that the Japanese strategy can work in other places that are trying to avoid Western imperialism, or does he believe that the Japanese were successful because of innate qualities? What do you think? Write a brief essay that analyzes whether India, had it been politically unified like the Japanese, could have avoided British domination by adapting a Japanese style of resistance, considering what you learned in Activity Six. You might also want to consult "India Under British Rule," pages 865-866, and "Transforming Japan," pages 869-871, in McKay, A History of World Societies (Fifth Edition).
  
  

Activity Eight:

• The Chinese government tried to emulate the Japanese, ironically after losing a war to Japan in 1895. To review some of the reforms the Chinese instituted, go to East Asian History Sourcebook: Emperor Kuang Hsu: Attempted Reforms, 1898 and East Asian History Sourcebook: Emperor Kuang Hsu: Abolition of the Examination System, 1898. Describe how these reforms were modeled on the Japanese experience.
  
  
• Unfortunately, these reform efforts failed, and China, although technically independent, remained dominated by foreign powers in the early twentieth century. Go to Map of China in 1910. Which foreign powers dominated China in 1910? How successful were the reform efforts of the late nineteenth century at challenging this interference? For answers, go to Ch'ing China: The Boxer Rebellion. Analyze the problems in China that prevented the implementation of a Japanese-style modernization campaign in the early twentieth century. Consider the following questions. How politically unified was China? How much control did foreigners already have in China at the turn of the century? How much respect was there for the Qing Dynasty? Summarize your answer in a paragraph or two.