In 1815, with Napoleon safely exiled to the island of St. Helena, many Europeans looked forward to a more peaceful century than the eighteenth century had been. Although there were no continent-wide wars like those associated with Napoleon in the nineteenth century, Europe was hardly at peace with itself. The consequences of the "dual revolution"- industrialism and the ideology of the French Revolution-shaped European politics, economics, and society. Few areas went untouched. The dual revolution perpetuated ideas such as socialism, liberalism, and nationalism. Throughout the nineteenth century, these ideas spread throughout the continent and produce monumental struggles between defenders of the past and champions of reform.

Symbolic of this clash were the revolutions of 1848. In that one year alone, most European societies underwent violent upheavals as they struggled to come to terms with the consequences of the dual revolution. The following activities will explore this important year in European history. You will be asked to take a "grand tour" of major European cities and witness the conflicts firsthand in order to better grasp the ideologies and upheavals of the nineteenth century.

Helpful Hints:

• You may want to begin by printing this page. As you explore different sites, use the printout to refer back to the instructions and questions detailed in each activity.
  
  
• On many web sites you can increase the size of the images by clicking on them. Whenever possible, use the larger images to examine fine details in photographs.
  
  

Activity One:

• Pretend that you are a respectable middle-class British citizen planning a "grand tour" of Paris, Berlin, and Buda and Pest (these two Hungarian cities on opposite sides of the Danube River did not merge until 1873) in 1848. During the eighteenth century, such visits were common among the aristocracy. Increasingly, these excursions were more readily available to the rising middle classes during the nineteenth century. You plan to visit museums, attend symphonies, and mingle with the people. You are particularly interested in the new Romanticism displayed in European art, music, and literature. You hope to view the artwork of Eugene Delacroix or listen to the music of Beethoven. To listen to some of Beethoven's work, go to The Classical Midi Archives: Beethoven, and click on one of the choices. Before you leave, you will want to acquaint yourself with the contemporary situation in Europe.
  
  
• You might want to take a few notes for your trip. To begin, go to a Map of Europe. In what countries or kingdoms are Paris, Berlin, and Budapest located? Now read about the current political situation in these three countries at Britannica.com: The Conservative Reaction. For more information on Prussia, see Infoplease.com: Prussia. (Pay special attention to the section "Rise of the Prussian State.") What kinds of governments do France, Prussia, and Austria have in 1848? Why do these articles call these regimes conservative? Are some more conservative than others? What developments are they reacting against? Who is Metternich? What influence has he had on European affairs in the past few decades? Finally, how do you plan to travel between these three cities? Are there any developments here that might make your journey easier? See Modern History Sourcebook: Spread of Railways in 19th Century.
  
  

Activity Two:

• You arrive in Paris in February. On February 22, fighting broke out between Parisian mobs and King Louis Phillipe's army. For an eye witness account, go to Modern History Sourcebook: Percy B. St. John: The French Revolution in 1848. Who seems to be protesting? How does Louis Phillipe's government try to quell these demonstrations? Why does this strategy lead to his abdication on February 24?
  
  

Activity Three:

• On February 24, a new Provisional Government declared France a republic and began writing a new constitution. See "The Overthrow of the Orleanist Monarchy," at Documents of the 1848 Revolution in France. At the end of this document, the new government tries to reclaim the spirit of the French Revolution in the 1790s by adapting its famous goals of "liberty, equality, and fraternity." Soon, however, the Provisional Government issued another proclamation, "Decrees of the Provisional Government Relating to the Workingmen." You can also read that document at Documents of the 1848 Revolution in France. What promises did the new government make to the working classes of Paris? Why do you think it felt compelled to do so? Did the working class play a crucial role in the overthrow of the monarchy?
  
  

Activity Four:

• The Provisional Government in France reflected the growing influence of the working class in Europe. (To review this concept, go to Activity Eight in the web activities for Chapter 24.) After the advent of the industrial revolution, the working class had become a major political force in certain parts of Europe. Indeed, a whole new ideology - socialism - had emerged that expressed the aspiration of the working class. Socialism did not oppose industrialism, just the inequality in wealth and opportunity that it produced. Socialist philosophers advocated reforming society so that workers would receive more justice.
  
  
• Many early socialists were actually from the middle classes. For example, read about one British socialist reformer at Robert Owen, 1771-1858. Why was Owen motivated to do something about the plight of workers in the industrial revolution? How can you summarize his reform efforts? Another early socialist was the Frenchman Charles Fourier. For his view, see Modern History Sourcebook: Charles Fourier: from Theory of Social Organization, 1820. How did Fourier plan for a more just society for workers? Were his views similar to Owen's? Did their ideas pursue the general goals of French revolutionaries in 1848? In other words, do they reflect the concepts of "liberty, equality, and fraternity?
  
  
• Reread the "Decrees of the Provisional Government Relating to the Workingmen" at Documents of the 1848 Revolution in France. How did socialist ideas inspire these policies adapted by the new French government? Write a letter to a friend back in Britain reflecting your observations on this last question.
  
  

Activity Five:

• On March 27, you continue your grand tour of Europe by leaving Paris for Buda and Pest. You arrive in this city on March 31. Although you hoped to leave the chaos of Paris behind, the revolutionary fever has spread to this central European city. Hungarians are demanding more autonomy from the Austrian Empire. Being British, you are probably confused by the multinational and multiethnic nature of the Austrian Empire. Go to Map of the Austrian Empire and locate the areas called Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, Croatia, and Galacia. Now study Map 25.2 on page 780 of McKay, A History of World Societies (Fifth Edition). Which ethnic groups dominated each of these areas? What other ethnic minorities were present in each region? What threat did the Hungarian uprising against the Hapsburg monarchs pose for the future of their empire?
  
  

Activity Six:

• To catch up on the events of March and April, go to Britannica.com: Austria, History of; Revolution and Counterrevolution and read the first eight paragraphs of this article. As the article explains, the Hungarian revolt began in reaction to the monarchy's attempt to govern the province from Vienna, the capital of the empire. Which elements of Hungarian society resisted this effort? How did this coalition of supporters affect the makeup of the new Hungarian regime that was proclaimed in March and recognized by the emperor in April?
  
  
• Study the new Hungarian constitution at Britannica.com: March Laws. McKay, A History of World Societies (Fifth Edition) describes this document as "extremely liberal, almost democratic." Which elements of the new constitution were liberal? Which elements were democratic? Was this document a true declaration of independence from the Austrian Empire?
  
  

Activity Seven:

• How similar were the revolts in Paris and Budapest? Did the people in each city share similar aspirations? On the one hand, both reflected liberal ideology. For more on nineteenth-century liberalism, read an excerpt from the work of Jeremy Bentham, an English philosopher, at English Liberalism. According to Bentham, what is the proper role of government in a liberal society? How is it supposed to regulate economic behavior? How is it supposed to regulate individual behavior? For a concise definition of liberalism, read the first paragraph at Encarta Online: Liberalism. Review "The Overthrow of the Orleanist Monarchy" at Documents of the 1848 Revolution in France and Britannica.com: March Laws. How do the actions of the French and Hungarian revolutionaries reflect the impact of liberalism on nineteenth-century Europe?
  
  
• The revolts in Hungary and France also differed in that they reflected other emerging ideologies in Europe. Activity Four explored the influence of socialism on the French revolt against Louis Phillipe. Do you see any socialist influence on the March laws of the Hungarian Revolution? The French and Hungarian revolts also reflect the growth of nationalism, but in different ways. For a definition, see Encarta Online: Nationalism (read the first three paragraphs). Nationalism began during the first French Revolution and supported the idea that "loyalty to the king was replaced by loyalty to the fatherland." How did nationalism influence the French and Hungarian revolutionaries? Were the French revolting against their king to form a new country? How about the Hungarians?
  
  
• After reflecting on these questions, write a letter to a friend or family member back in Britain that summarizes your observations of the early Hungarian revolt against the Austrian monarchy. Be sure to discuss the influence of nationalism and liberalism.
  
  

Activity Eight:

• After several weeks in Budapest, you leave there on April 27 and head for Berlin. Because of a relaxation in press censorship and through your conversations with fellow passengers, you are able to piece together information about what is going on in Europe in March and April. Go to 1848 Timeline and make a list of all the regions in Europe where revolts have begun against existing governments up until June. You might want to identify these places on your Map of Europe. It appears that the entire continent might revolt. Who seems to be the target of the revolutionaries? How have they been inspired by the French and Hungarians?
  
  

Activity Nine:

• You arrive in Berlin on May 1. Berlin is the capital of Prussia, which is next to Austria, the most powerful state in the German Confederation. In the 1830s, Prussia and several other German states had formed the Zollverein. See the map at The Growth of the German Zollverein. This free trade zone helped bring on the industrial revolution in Prussia and other German states. See "Economic Changes and the Zollverein" at Brittanica.com: Germany, history of The age of Metternich and the era of Unification: 1815-71 Reform and reaction. Make a list of some of the problems associated with industrialism and economic integration.
  
  
• Now read the article The March Days of 1848: Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia and his "Dear Berliners." How did the economic changes in Prussia contribute to the revolt in Berlin in March 1848? How was this revolt similar to the revolts in Paris and Budapest? How influential were liberal ideas? How influential was nationalism?
  
  

Activity Ten:

• When you arrive in Berlin, the people's attention has turned to events in Frankfort, a city that was a member of the Zollverein but not part of the Prussian state. Go to The German 1848 Revolution: A German Perspective and read the sections entitled "Märzrevolution (the March Revolution)" and "The National Assembly meets in St. Paul's Church." What had begun in Frankfort during the spring of 1848? What factors contributed to the desire to create a German nation state? Which elements in German society supported this aspiration? What major issues divided them over how to create a large German nation state? Upon reflection, write another letter to a friend or relative in Britain that explains how the Revolution of 1848 was affecting the German people. Be sure to discuss the influence of liberalism, socialism, and nationalism on this revolution.
  
  

Activity Eleven:

• You leave Berlin on June 15 for Bremen, where you take a ship back home to Britain. After your return, you continue to follow the events you witnessed while on your trip. By the summer of 1849, most of the revolutions had run their course, and results were mixed. In France, the revolution resulted in the election of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the nephew of Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, as president. See France: Election of President. What factors do you think contributed to his election? Did he have the support of all revolutionaries, such as the socialists? Why do you think he appealed to such a broad segment of the French population after the revolution?
  
  
• For the Hungarian revolt, see Britannica.com: Austria, History of; Revolution and Counterrevolution and skip down to the seventh through tenth paragraphs. The Hungarians failed to secure their autonomy. How had the Austrian government thwarted this goal? The Germans were equally unsuccessful at creating a modern German nation state. See 1848: Revolution and Reaction. What factors contributed to the failure at German unity? Were all of the groups who supported it in agreement as to what kind of nation state it should be?
  
  

Activity Twelve:

• Overall, the revolutionaries of 1848 in Europe did not achieve their goals. Socialists were unable to get socialist principles written into new state constitutions, nationalists failed to create new nation states, and liberals did not achieve all of their goals. Nevertheless, in the long run, some of all three groups' goals were accomplished. For example, go to Western and Central European Chronology: The Age of Liberalism. As you read through this list, keep track of all the developments that reflect the goals of the revolutionaries of 1848. Would you agree that their efforts had a long reach?