Since 1989, world affairs have been shaped by increasing global interdependence and the clash of cultural traditions that it often provokes. One of the most important events of this period has been the fall of communism. Encouraged by Gorbachev's liberal policies, eastern Europeans began voicing their resentment over Soviet domination and the failures of communism. Poland's Solidarity movement took the lead in anti-Soviet agitation, peacefully winning leadership of a noncommunist government in 1989. The rest of eastern Europe followed, the last communist dictatorship-Romania's-falling by late 1989. Soon after the Soviet Union itself collapsed as its constituent republics broke away, leaving Russia to cope with a shattered economy and rising violence and corruption. Yeltsin's "shock therapy" only worsened these problems, concentrating power in the hands of the oligarchs. After economic weakened the oligarchs, Putin managed to break their power. Since 1999, he has fostered economic stability and oriented Russia more toward the West. However, social, political, and economic turmoils persist, especially in the former Soviet republics of Central Asia.

Since the fall of communism Central and Eastern European nations have worked incorporate Western ideals and to develop market economies. After initial difficulties, Western aid since 1995 has helped their economic prospects, and impending integration into NATO promises further political stability. After Yugoslavia's Serb-dominated communist regime fell, the country quickly dissolved into its ethnic components. Nationalist hatreds exploded, first in Bosnia and then in Kosovo, testing the ability of the West to respond to conditions of the post-cold-war world.

Western Europe has continued the process, begun after WWII, of integration. In 1991 the EC became the EU, an organization that now competes with the U. S. in the global economy. The EU has yet to deal with the problem of its procedural detachment from public opinion, and with the local interests of its members, especially on the divisive issue of immigration. In addition, the EU now faces the challenge of integrating eastern nations that do not meet the economic and political requirements for membership. Throughout the EU center-left governments face challenges from right-wing parties that wish to tighten immigration policies. However, the major members have maintained stable centrist governments despite high unemployment and social tensions caused by factors such as the Northern Ireland issue in Britain, immigration in France, and reunification in Germany.

As globalization proceeds, Western culture and values clash with traditional cultures around the world. This clash has been most severe in the Muslim world where fundamentalists see Western values threatening Islam. Fundamentalist resentment exploded with the September 11th attacks by members of bin Alden's Al Quad organization. The threat of such international terrorism continues to challenge Western nations, particularly the U. S. Other pressing international problems include population explosion, widening economic disparity, rapid urbanization, and escalating violence. How the West can respond to these issues according to its highest ideals will remain an urgent question for the foreseeable future.