During the seventeenth century, the Scientific Revolution introduced a new conception of the universe that profoundly shaped the modern outlook. Up to this point, medieval cosmology, a Christianized version of Aristotle's and Ptolemy's theories, dominated the European worldview. The new scientific thought grew in part from Renaissance Neo-Platonism that promoted Plato's vision of the universe that was abstract and mathematically elegant. Also important was the influence of Hermeticism and other mystical systems that encouraged thinkers to search for higher realities and represent them mathematically. This combination of empiricism and mysticism influenced scientific thought until the Enlightenment.

Copernicus launched the Scientific Revolution with his heliocentric theory, a model that was mathematically simpler than Ptolemy's geocentric model. Tycho's astronomical observations complemented Copernicus' theory, further undermining medieval cosmology. Building upon Tycho's calculations, Kepler formulated the laws of planetary motion that gave mathematical proof to Copernicus' theories. Opposing Aristotle, Galileo conducted experiments that established the fundamental order and uniformity of nature. Galileo also challenged Ptolemaic astronomy with his observations of planets and moons. Fearing the implications of Galileo's ideas, the church ultimately condemned them, thus stifling scientific inquiry throughout Catholic Europe. Newton synthesized these achievements into a set of mathematical laws that accounted for the motion of matter. A deeply religious thinker, Newton presented his laws a evidence of God's will at work in the universe.

Biology, medicine, and chemistry advanced more slowly than astronomy and physics. Medicine was generally dominated by Galenic principles, but Paracelsus introduced diagnostic techniques based on Hermetic ideas. Anatomists including Vesalius and Harvey contributed important insights into the structure of the human body, and Boerhaave brought the new scientific method to bear on practical medicine. Boyle developed an atomic theory of matter and led a powerful social movement in England that promoted Protestant science against Catholic theology and popular superstition. Bacon and Descartes proclaimed the social value of the new science. Rejecting the mystical strain of scientific inquiry, Bacon argued that science must devote itself to improving the material condition of humanity. Descartes envisioned the ability of science to control nature; he also theorized a radical split between matter and spirit. Spinoza pursued the implications of this split, identifying God and Nature such that he drew the anger of Christians and Jews alike.

The Scientific Revolution profoundly shaped European society and Western thought. Often censored and attacked in Catholic countries, the new science spread through Protestant Europe where it was accepted and supported by educated class. Governments encouraged scientific inquiry in hope that any advances would strengthen the state. Educated entrepreneurs applied theoretical mechanics to problems of production, thus initiating the Industrial Revolution. Further, as the new science captured the popular imagination, acceptance of its tenets became a crucial mark of social distinction. For Western thought the Scientific Revolution meant the end of the medieval Christian world-view. In place of this world-view, it offered a vision of a mechanical universe that functioned according to mathematical laws that could be grasped by the human mind. Although traditional Christianity and folk beliefs persisted among the poor masses, the new science became the outlook of the educated elite and emerging class of industrialists.