1. Industrial Growth and Acceleration
   Technological and economic advances fueled industrial development, accelerating the rapid pace of social change.
   1. The "Second Industrial Revolution"
      The extension of credit, infrastructure investment, new discoveries in materials science, and advances in industrial technology all spurred expansion in "the age of steel."
   2. Transportation and Communications
      New and faster rail lines combined with improvements in shipping to permit rapid international trade and communications.
2. Changing Conditions Among Social Groups
   Industrialization elevated the social and political influence of the middle class and generally improved the lot of workers, but at the expense of traditional rural elites.
   1. The Declining Aristocracy
      Nobles increasingly turned to middleclass marriages or social strategies to retain influence in industrial culture.
   2. The Expanding Middle Classes
      Bourgeois values predominated as middleclass jobs in the professions, civil services, and businesses offered respectability and economic security.
   3. MiddleClass Lifestyles
      Comforts such as servants, vacations, and leisure activities were balanced by an emphasis on propriety, respectability, and female domesticity.
   4. The Workers' Lot
      The economic pinch eased slightly and the workweek shortened, but the working class still labored at a great disadvantage.
   5. The Transformation of the Countryside
      Fewer agricultural workers were needed as largescale farming flourished due to new machines, innovative techniques, and better distribution.
3. Urban Problems and Solutions
   Explosive urban growth required advances in public health, urban planning, and services.
   1. City Planning and Urban Renovation
      Haphazard medieval neighborhoods gave way to new construction designed for efficient transportation and aesthetic value.
   2. The Introduction of Public Services
      Public health, transit, lighting, and police services made cities safer and more enjoyable.
4. Social and Political Initiatives
   Governments, charities, and socialist reformers targeted the problems of urban living and the disparities of the industrial economy.
   1. State Intervention in Welfare
      Charitable impulses and fear of worker unrest led to protective legislation, rudimentary welfare provisions, and innumerable private aid efforts.
   2. Educational and Cultural Opportunities
      Basic public education produced welltrained industrial workers and some museums and galleries began to open their doors to the general public.
5. Culture in an Age of Optimism
   Confidence in scientific and technological progress manifested itself in secular, realistic culture and thought.
   1. Darwin and Evolution
      Darwin's theory of "natural selection" built upon the ideas of positivism and geology, confirming scientific philosophy but challenging religious certainty.
   2. Physics, Chemistry, and Medicine
      Dramatic scientific breakthroughs led to technical achievements and confirmed science's authority and prestige.
   3. Birth of the Social Sciences
      The study of human cultures, interaction, and history were all transformed by a new emphasis on objectivity and professional standards.
   4. The Challenge to Religion
      The political role of churches declined and religious toleration grew, but popular spirituality and antiSemitism still prospered.
   5. Culture in the Age of Material Change
      Science and photography spurred some writers and artists to greater realism while others experimented with distortion and exaggeration.