1. The Changing Nature of International Relations
   The Crimean War signaled a new level of tension as competitive nations pursued their conflicting goals.
   1. The Crimean War, 1854-1856
      Common fears of Russia brought Britain and France into a devastating, futile war defending the Ottoman Empire.
   2. The Congress of Paris, 1856
      Almost universal dissatisfaction with the peace treaty's terms ended the cooperative era of the congress system.
2. Italian Unification, 1859-1870
   After 1848, Italian nationalism found renewed support in popular patriotism and in the liberal, prosperous kingdom of Piedmont.
   1. Cavour Plots Unification
      The Piedmontese minister suffered disappointment when, after bloody battles and Austrian and Prussian pressure, France reneged on its agreement to support Italian unification.
   2. Unification Achieved, 1860
      Popular agitation for unification paved the way for Piedmont's king to become the first ruler of a united Italy in November 1860.
   3. The Problems of Unified Italy
      Political disputes with the papacy and severe regional disparities handicapped the new Italian state.
3. German Unification, 1850-1871
   The loose linkage of the German Confederation gave way to a newly unified state under Prussia's iron control.
   1. The Rise of Bismarck
      Bismarck exploited Prussian desires for a unified Germany to control national politics and steer Prussia into a new position of German dominance.
   2. Prussian Wars and German Unity
      Aggressive military action in the annexation of SchleswigHolstein allowed Prussia to supplant Austria in German politics.
   3. The FrancoPrussian War and Unification, 1870-1871
      The Ems dispatch spurred France into war with wellprepared and enthusiastic Prussian foes, whose victory cemented the creation of a new German Empire.
   4. The Character of the New Germany
      The continental balance of power shifted while within Germany, Prussian authoritarianism spread as imperial power eclipsed the democratic promise of the new constitution.
4. Precarious Empires
   The Habsburg, Ottoman, and Russian empires struggled to fortify their regimes with reforms and restructuring.
   1. The Dual Monarchy in AustriaHungary
      Franz Joseph bolstered imperial authority by introducing liberal reforms in Austria, granting autonomy to Magyars in Hungary, and pursuing an aggressive foreign policy in the Balkans.
   2. The Ailing Ottoman Empire
      Liberal Western examples, economic weakness, and ethnic division weakened Turkey, leading to a new round of European attacks and interventions.
   3. Russia and the Great Reforms
      Calls for glasnost--greater openness--inspired a series of important changes in Russian society and politics, especially the abolition of serfdom in 1861.
5. The Emergence of New Political Forms in the United States and Canada, 1840-1880
   The expanding democratic power of the United States faced challenges to federal authority and its ideals during the Civil War.
   1. Territorial Expansion and Slavery
      Through war and diplomacy, the United States grew to span the continent while the federal government increased its authority, inspiring resistance among the slaveholding southern states.
   2. Civil War and National Unity, 1861-1865
      The war and its aftermath witnessed an unprecedented growth in the functions and powers of the federal government, while newly emancipated slaves struggled for a place under Reconstruction.
   3. The Frontiers of Democracy
      American politicians appealed to popular sensibilities in order to command the votes of an expanded electorate.
   4. The Northern Neighbor: Canada
      The nineteenth century saw Canada become virtually self-governing, as well as larger, freer, and more centralized.
6. The Development of Western Democracies
   Britain, France, and several smaller states underwent a series of reforms that brought them closer to establishing democratic political systems and cultures.
   1. Victorian Britain
      Liberal ideals dominated as the British political system moved toward a strongly defined two-party system.
   2. France: From Empire to Republic
      Widespread conservatism collided with liberal republican sentiment, stalling French political change.
   3. Scandinavia and the Low Countries
      Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Holland, and Belgium also reformed their governments in the direction of full democracy.