1. The Enlightenment
   Transferring approaches from the Scientific Revolution into political and social change, the Age of Reason popularized newly critical attitudes toward state and culture.
   1. Voltaire: The Quintessential Philosophe
      The most famous philosophe promoted rationalism while attacking religious and aristocratic privilege in his actions and writing.
   2. The Variety of Enlightenment Thought
      Publications such as the Encyclopédie spread the widely varying views of philosophes about religion, politics, gender equality, and the economy.
   3. The Growth of Public Opinion
      Separate from the traditions of court society, an increasingly literate and sophisticated public followed intellectual and political developments through a variety of print media.
   4. Art in the Age of Reason
      Escaping the elite confines of courtly audiences, music, theater, literature, painting, and sculpture explored the "cult of sensibility" as well as classical and natural themes.
2. European States in the Age of Enlightenment
   Seeking greater effectiveness, European rulers cautiously employed Enlightenment principles in their administration.
   1. France During the Enlightenment
      Fiscal crises exacerbated by continuing legal and political challenges hampered the efforts of French monarchs to enact a controlled reform of the government.
   2. Monarchy and Constitutional Government in Great Britain
      Suppressing rival Catholic claimants, Hanoverian kings ruled within a developing system of parliamentary representation and party politics.
   3. "Enlightened" Monarchy
      Monarchs such as Frederick II of Prussia and Gustav III of Sweden sought to harness Enlightenment innovations and improvements to enhance productivity, efficiency, and power.
   4. Enlightenment and Tradition: The Case of Austria
      The traditional Austrian ruler Maria Theresa had more success with reform than her "enlightened despot" son, Joseph II.
   5. Catherine the Great and the Empire of Russia
      Pursuing traditional territorial goals while attempting to reform Russian culture, law, and administration, Catherine still faced noble and peasant resistance to her policies.
3. The Widening Scope of Commerce and Warfare
   Increased military effectiveness, territorial ambition, and colonial competition ensured a new era of warfare and rivalry among European states.
   1. A Century of Warfare: Circumstances and Rationales
      Dynastic claims as well as economic and strategic concerns launched expensive wars, leading to the creation of brutal, professional military forces.
   2. The Power of Austria and Prussia
      Risky and ambitious wars with Austria cemented the role of Prussia within the chief ranks of European nations.
   3. The Atlantic World: Expanding Commerce and the Slave Trade
      Profitable and strategic colonies in the Americas and especially in the Caribbean fueled European economies and rivalries.
   4. Great Britain and France: Wars Overseas
      Britain's navy and relative freedom from continental concerns provided an important advantage in expanding North American, Caribbean, and East Indian territories at France's expense.
4. Economic Expansion and Social Change
   Agricultural and industrial innovations along with population growth brought devastating social change.
   1. More Food and More People
      The "agricultural revolution" increased Europe's food supply, resulting in larger families, labor pools, and urban growth, often at the expense of rural employment and traditions.
   2. The Growth of Industry
      Growing demand for finished and manufactured goods led to increased manufacturing employment and mechanization.
   3. Control and Resistance
      Cities struggled to cope with the displaced and desperate while peasants, sailors, and pirates demonstrated increasingly organized resistance to traditional authorities.