Beginning in about 1560 violence and war spread through much of Europe as religious conflict mixed with political rivalries to make an incendiary brew.

1. Economic Change and Social Tensions
   Rising prices and near constant warfare accelerated sociopolitical change in both urban and rural communities.
   1. Economic Transformation and the New Elites
      The balance of wealth and power shifted because of inflation, population growth, and the acquisition of landed property and power by mercantile elites.
   2. Economic Change and the Common People
      The spread of capitalist means of production weakened the protection and authority of guilds, artisans' traditions, and women's place in the urban work force. Demand for grain in Western Europe contributed to the enserfment of peasants in Eastern Europe.
   3. Coping with Poverty and Violence
      Armies recruited from the impoverished ranks of society, whose other choices were rebellion, thievery, or begging.
   4. The Hunt for Witches
      Witchhunting unleashed hysterical and often misogynistic accusations that resulted in thousands of unwarranted witchcraft trials and executions.
2. Imperial Spain and the Limits of Royal Power
   Rebellion in the Netherlands combined with costly wars on many fronts drained Spanish coffers and military forces.
   1. The Revolt of the Netherlands
      Spanish policy towards religious dissent and political disaffection in the Netherlands led to a longlasting and divisive rebellion. The war was a large drain on the Spanish treasury.
   2. The Failure of the Invincible Armada
      Meant to avenge the death of Mary, Queen of Scots and also end English support for the Dutch rebels, Philip's Grand Armada was illprepared for the rigors of the long voyage and for English tactics and weapons.
   3. Successes at Home and Around the Mediterranean
      Philip countered Turkish naval power in the Mediterranean as he consolidated his hold on the Iberian Peninsula.
   4. Spain in Decline, 1600-1648
      With import revenues and taxes declining while the cost of administration and warfare skyrocketed, Spain faced a mounting political crisis.
3. Religious and Political Conflict in France and England
   Religious minorities in France and England exacerbated political problems, threatening the stability and survival of royal authority.
   1. The French Religious Wars, 1562-1598
      Nobles resentful of royal centralization and renewed conflict between Huguenots and Catholics contributed to a wholesale collapse of national authority until Henry IV restored the monarchy's control.
   2. The Consolidation of Royal Authority in France, 1598-1643
      Ambitious nobles and religious dissidents continued to challenge the monarchy's authority until the able ministry of Cardinal Richelieu restored internal political order while bringing great military successes.
   3. Precarious Stability in England: The Reign of Elizabeth I, 1558-1603
      Elizabeth Tudor adeptly managed political and religious factions within her realm, but costly foreign problems brought economic and religious tensions to a peak by the end of her reign.
   4. Rising Tensions in England, 1603-1642
      Uneasy relations between the early Stuart kings and their parliaments stirred resentment in England until a Scottish rebellion forced Charles I to confront domestic political and religious problems.
4. Religious and Political Conflict in Central and Eastern Europe
   Arising out of unresolved religious disputes and political rivalries between the emperor and his noble subjects, the resulting Thirty Years' War devastated the empire.
   1. Fragile Peace in the Holy Roman Empire, 1555-1618
      The empire enjoyed a brief era of peace, prosperity, and toleration, but imperial desires for centralization combined with new and vigorous strains of evangelical Catholicism to unsettle the precarious political balance.
   2. The Thirty Years' War, 1618-1648
      Protestant resistance to Catholic policies coincided with princely antagonism to Imperial decrees, sparking a war that developed into a continentwide conflict.
   3. The Effects of the War
      The devastating Thirty Years' War brought revolutions in military practice and diplomatic procedure as the Peace of Westphalia ended the future political power of the Empire.
   4. Stability and Dynamism in Eastern Europe
      Major emerging states in Eastern Europe in the 16th century were the Ottoman Empire, the Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth, Sweden, and Muscovy (Russia).
5. Writing, Drama, and Art in an Age of Upheaval
   Driven by the urgent political and religious problems of the age, written, oral, and visual media conveyed powerful and grandiose messages, aimed at exciting minds and emotions.
   1. Literacy and Literature
      Supremely conscious of self and society in an era of growing literacy, writers such as Cervantes, Montaigne, and Shakespeare reflected distinctive national sensibilities in their works.
   2. The Great Age of Theater
      Humanist and aristocratic themes dominated the works of many professional playwrights and musicians, reflecting the nature of their elite audiences.
   3. Sovereignty in Ceremony, Image, and Word
      Royal ceremony and political theory both emphasized the authority of sovereigns and states.