1. The Reformation Movements, ca. 1517-1545
   In the early 16th century reformers who sought to return to the "original" Christianity of the New Testament challenged the medieval church's exclusive claims to sacramental and priestly authority.
   1. The Late Medieval Context
      The two centuries before the reformation witnessed an upsurge of popular piety as ordinary women and men participated in a broad range of popular religious organizations and activities.
   2. Martin Luther and the New Theology
      Luther's private soulsearching inspired a new approach to theology expressed in the "NinetyFive Theses" and subsequent attacks on papal authority.
   3. The Reformation of the Communities
      Attacks on celibacy, the veneration of saints, and pilgrimages spread with Luther's message, sparking division and even violence.
   4. John Calvin and the Reformed Tradition
      Calvin's concepts of moral reform and the elect manifested themselves in strictly selfdisciplined communities such as Geneva.
   5. The Radical Reform of the Anabaptists
      Rejecting infant baptism and public office, the radical reformers formed closed communities often attacked by fellow Christians.
2. The Empire of Charles V (r. 1519-1556)
   Political rivalries, inside and outside the empire, hampered the emperor's ability to govern effectively and protect the unity of the church.
   1. Imperial Challenges
      Charles V's vast inheritance in Spain, the empire, and the Netherlands required constant vigilance to defend its borders and its authority.
   2. German Politics
      His imperial authority hemmed in by the power of electoral princes and imperial free cities, Charles's attempts to stifle Luther were frustrated by powerful subjects protecting the reformer.
   3. The Religious Settlement
      Luther's followers enjoyed official recognition in the Empire alongside the traditional church, after the Peace of Augsburg, negotiated at the end of Charles's reign.
3. The English Reformation, 1520-1603
   In contrast with Germany, the English monarchy, after initial opposition, became the agent of religious change.
   1. Henry VIII and the Monarchical Reformation
      When the pope denied him annulment, Henry's desire for a male heir led him to embrace reformers, break with Rome, and establish himself as Supreme Head of the English Church. Dynastic conflicts with Holy Roman Emperor Charles V also contributed to Henry's break with Rome.
   2. Reform and CounterReform Under Edward and Mary
      From Protestant Edward to Catholic Mary, midsixteenth-century England swung uncertainly between religious extremes.
   3. The Elizabethan Settlement
      Seeking balance and compromise in all her actions, Elizabeth presided over an English church blending reformed and traditional elements.
4. France, Scandinavia, and Eastern Europe, 1523-1560
   Popular support and royal politics complicated issues of religious reform across Europe.
   1. France
      French Protestants, known as Huguenots, comprised a small, diverse, and dispersed minority in an increasingly hostile environment.
   2. Scandinavia
      Scandinavian kings such as Sweden's Gustav Vasa established the Lutheran faith as the state church in their dominions.
   3. Eastern Europe
      Lack of central authority fostered both change and toleration, while the Reformation made no impact on Russia's Orthodox Church.
5. The Late Reformation, ca. 1545-1600
   In the "Second Reformation," distinct religious identities emerged in Catholic and Protestant communities.
   1. Catholic Reform, 1512-1600
      Rejuvenated by the examples of mystics like Teresa of Avila or missionaries such as Ignatius Loyola, the Council of Trent reaffirmed Catholic traditions and stamped out abuses.
   2. Confessionalization
      Important distinctions in theology, liturgy, architecture, and decoration helped differentiate austere Protestantism and mystical Catholicism.
   3. The Regulation of Religious Life
      Fearing moral and theological deviance, religious authorities sought to suppress social and religious independence, especially among women.