1. Humanism and Culture in Italy, 1300-1500
   Italians turned to classical Greece and Rome in a search for answers to practical problems of politics, culture, and education.
   1. The Emergence of Humanism
      Italian cities promoted broadbased and practical education reflecting the culture of Italy, past and present. Italian education focused less on Scholasticism and the preparation of priests than education in northern Europe.
   2. Early Humanism
      Petrarch applied the principles he found in classical antiquity to his writing and his worldview.
   3. Humanistic Studies
      Italian intellectuals freely employed classical knowledge to solve the educational, political, and moral problems of the day.
   4. The Transformation of Humanism
      The rediscovery of classical texts sparked a new and critical approach to philosophical, historical, and scientific traditions.
   5. Humanism and Political Thought
      The harsh realities of invading armies dismissed idealistic visions of politics, fostering instead the sophisticated theories of Machiavelli and Guicciardini. Machievelli separated questions of personal morality from politics.
2. The Arts in Italy, 1250-1550
   Naturalistic and classical influences molded a distinctive Renaissance artistic sensibility.
   1. The Artistic Renaissance
      Innovative and dramatic approaches to sculpture, painting, and architecture culminated in the work of multitalented artists such as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo.
   2. Art and Patronage
      Individuals and institutions commissioned artwork both for glory and to communicate precise cultural messages.
3. The Spread of the Renaissance, 1350-1536
   The emphasis on ancient Rome diminished as broader political and cultural themes helped spread humanistic culture throughout Europe.
   1. Vernacular Literatures
      Chaucer, Langland, and Christine de Pizan wrote traditional and popular stories that helped to develop the vernacular languages of their countries.
   2. The Impact of Printing
      Printshops became cultural centers as presses produced multiple copies of popular and esoteric texts for widespread study.
   3. Humanism Outside Italy
      In Northern Europe, universities, not urban schools, promoted a humanist culture strongly devoted to moral and religious reform.
   4. Thomas More and Desiderius Erasmus
      Critics of their societies, More and Erasmus set the standard for humanistic culture and moral character.
   5. Renaissance Art in the North
      Influenced by Italian techniques and styles, northern European artists such as Dürer nevertheless developed a distinctively realistic and religious art.
4. The Renaissance and Court Society
   Art, literature, and politics united in the practices of Renaissance court culture.
   1. The Elaboration of the Court
      Through ceremony and chivalric orders, Renaissance rulers sought to glorify themselves and secure the services of their courtiers.
   2. The Court of Mantua
      The Gonzaga dukes and duchesses established cultural and artistic standards for courtly life throughout Europe.
   3. The Renaissance Papacy
      Like their secular counterparts, popes commissioned art and architecture glorifying their rule and traditions.
   4. Castiglione and the European Gentleman
      Joining humanistic ideas to traditional chivalric values, Castiglione produced a practical and popular code of conduct for courtiers.