1. Before the Republic, 753-509 B.C.
   Archaeological evidence lends some credence to Roman traditions of early connections to Greece.
   1. Archaic Rome and Its Neighbors
      Centrally and strategically located in the Italian peninsula, Rome was influenced by Etruscans from the north and Greek colonists to the south.
   2. The Roman Monarchy
      Despite a class-based social and political system, Archaic Rome was open to immigrants and included them in its army, as it evolved from monarchy to republic.
2. Government and Society in the Early and Middle Republics, ca. 509-133 B.C.
   1. What Kind of Republic?
      The mixed constitution of Roman republican government divided power between the magistrates, patrician senate, and plebeian assemblies. Political conflict in the early republic was intense.
   2. Political Institutions
      Elected magistrates wielded executive authority, guided by the powerful senate, while the people's assemblies offered popular political participation under strict controls.
   3. Conflict of the Orders
      Wealthy and poor plebeians united to force political and legal concessions from the patricians in a conflict lasting from 494 to 287 B.C.
   4. The Roman Household
      A unit of economic, political, and domestic order, the household mirrored the hierarchy of Roman society. The power of fathers was based on respect for ancestors, which was stronger in ancient Rome than in ancient Greece.
   5. Patrons and Clients
      Patrons and clients had a relationship based on "good faith" and the exchange of material favors for political support and loyalty. The patron-client relationship grounded Roman domestic politics and foreign affairs.
   6. Religion and World-View
      Ideals of loyalty to familia, the gods, and the state underlay the traditions of Roman worship. Through sacrificial offerings and prayers Romans attempted to bind the gods to them.
3. From Italian CityState to World Empire, ca. 509-133 B.C.
   By 146 B.C., Rome transformed herself from a local Italian power into the supreme state of the Mediterranean world.
   1. Republic Expansion: The Conquest of Italy, ca. 509-265 B.C.
      Rome's legionaries capitalized on conflict within Italy to conquer and unify Italy.
   2. Rome Versus Carthage: The Punic Wars, 264-146 B.C.
      A naval and commercial power, Carthage was Rome's main rival outside Italy until its defeat in the Punic wars left Rome supreme in the Mediterranean.
   3. Victories in the Hellenistic East, ca. 200-133 B.C.
      Conquests in Greece and Macedonia signaled the start of Rome's expansion into the Eastern Mediterranean.
   4. The Socioeconomic Consequences of Expansion
      Enriched with conquered land and booty, Rome's elite prospered fabulously while poor, independent farmers struggled for survival.
   5. The Impact of Greece on Rome and Its Empire
      From Greek examples, Romans such as Plautus, Terence, and Cato the censor established a distinctive Roman literature especially strong in rhetoric.
4. The Revolution from the Gracchi to the Caesars, 133-31 B.C.
   Class conflict and a military crisis helped fuel a century of domestic and foreign unrest, leading to a crisis of the Republic.
   1. The Gracchi
      Championing plebeian demands to resolve an agrarian crisis, the Gracchi brothers challenged the senate's political authority with bloody results.
   2. Marius and Sulla
      Capitalizing on their military successes, first Marius, then Sulla emerged as effective dictators in a Republic beset by political division and foreign unrest.
   3. Pompey and Caesar
      The First Triumvirate of Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus exploited the Republic's weakness until its own breakup allowed Caesar to rule as dictator until his own assassination.
   4. The World of Cicero
      A politician, rhetorician, and writer, Cicero embodied the traditions and values of Rome's late Republican elite.