A positionBeing at the top of a society's power structure is no guarantee of a leader's ability to translate his or her will into action. Misunderstandings, a lack of resources, and the active resistance of followers can all hinder the translation execution of a plan into policy. Even with the necessary resources and the goodwill of followers, new policies often produce unexpected consequences when tried out in complex, real-world real world situations. Reform efforts face particular difficulties in this context since reform, by definition, implies the identification of flaws in the status quo and a formula for a more perfect future.

Keep this in mind as you review the boxed features on page 208 (A Contemporary View of Diocletian's Reform) and page 263 (Charlemagne's Efforts at Educational Reform) of your textbook. When you're finished reviewing, take a look at De Imperatoribus Romanis for more on Diocletian and his reform efforts. Then look at two examples of Carolingian literature written by Agobard of Lyons, On Hail and Thunder and On the Deception of Certain Signs. When you're done, consider the questions below.

1. How would you explain the incongruity between Lactantius's impression of Diocletian's reforms and Diocletian's intentions? In general, what factors created resistance to the reforms?

2. In your opinion, what else might Diocletian have done to save the empire? What were the most intractable problems facing him?

3. What were Charlemagne's stated motives for promoting educational reform? What other benefits might have hoped to gain from an increase in the number of well-educated subjects?