Although he conquered much of the world, Alexander behaved very much like the rank and file of the Macedonian army he commanded. He was particularly fond of drinking, as shown by the pains to which Plutarch (ca. A.D. 50-125) goes in this passage (written ca. 100 A.D.) to present him as something other than a complete drunkard. Alexander's adoption of Persian dress shows an interesting paradox in his achievements: although he brought Greek culture to much of Asia, he adopted certain local customs to make rule easier.

Demothenes (385 or 384-322 B.C.) gained fame in the early Hellenistic era as an unrivaled orator in Athens. He wrote dozens of speeches not only for the law courts, but also for himself to present in the Assembly. His oratorical skills proved so great that he virtually dominated Athenian politics during a thirty-year period (346-324 B.C.) that coincided with the reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great. In this speech, probably given around 336 B.C., Demosthenes discusses the recent treaty between Alexander and Athens in which Alexander was "elected" commander of all the Greek forces. Demosthenes, who had been among Philip's greatest critics, turned his opposition to Alexander and called on his fellow Athenians to resist Macedonian hegemony.

The historian Arrian, who composed an account of Alexander's life in the second century A.D. based on earlier accounts, presents a letter the Macedonian leader allegedly wrote to his Persian counterpart. In this excerpt, Alexander writes to King Darius III (r. 336-330 B.C.) in an effort to justify his upcoming invasion of Persia and destruction of the Persian capital.

The Alexander Mosaic is a copy of an original mosaic completed around 300 B.C. The scene depicts Alexander the Great leading his troops in the Battle of Issus (333 B.C.) against the Persian king, Darius. Composed of minute stone and glass pieces, this mosaic is one of the largest and most significant works of art that survives from antiquity. This particular mosaic was found in the city of Pompeii in 1831, where it had been submerged for centuries after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Most of the left side of the work was destroyed in the event.

Once Alexander the Great had defeated Darius, he occupied the Persian capital city of Persepolis with his troops. In this account written by the Roman historian in 331 B.C., Diodorus, Alexander and his men decide to destroy the capital after a day spent drinking wine.

Arrian's history of Alexander's reign represents the most comprehensive account of his conquests. A military man as well as a historian, Arrian wrote extensively about Alexander's military successes. In this excerpt, Arrian describes Alexander's campaign against the Malli in present-day India. Fusing horrific details of the slaughter of innocents with tales of Alexander's personal heroism, this selection represents one of the most graphic and powerful of Arrian's history.

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) ranks alongside Plato (427-348) and Socrates (469-399) as one of the three greatest philosophers in ancient Greece, thinkers who in turn founded the Western philosophical tradition. Characterized by his practical, down-to-earth style of thinking, Aristotle is known for his wide range of interests, which he explored in numerous treatises. Already renowned throughout Greece by the time of Philip's reign in Macedonia, Aristotle accepted a post as Alexander the Great's official tutor when Alexander was a young boy. Aristotle served in this position for nearly eight years, and thus his teachings certainly played an important role in shaping Alexander's approach to life. The two selections below are taken from one of Aristotle's best-known works, Politics (c. 325 B.C.). In the first selection, Aristotle defines the state and explains its component parts. The second section features Aristotle's thoughts on the role of education in society.

Plutarch, the celebrated imperial Roman scholar, appraised Alexander's reign in another work, De Alexandri Magni Fortuna aut Virtute (ca. 100), in which he made more clear Alexander's place in the history of the ancient world. Here Plutarch attempts to answer the question, "Did Alexander owe his success to luck?" In attempting to explain Alexander's fortune, Plutarch firmly established Alexander's reputation for military genius, empire building, and the spread of Greek thought.

Historians have long found Alexander a difficult figure to assess. Few doubt that his conquests and life laid the foundations for the Hellenistic world, but some historians disagree with Plutarch's positive assessment of Alexander's personality. In the epilogue to his biography of Alexander, John O'Brien, a professor of history at the City University of New York, writes that Alexander represents the ideal "tragic hero" of history.

In this selection from his biography of Alexander, Cambridge University historian N.G.L. Hammond stresses Alexander's genius, particularly in his military successes. Here Alexander is not a "tragic hero" at all, but a man whose intelligence and quick thinking characterized his reign. For Hammond, Alexander also deserves credit for spreading Greek culture throughout Asia and for balancing his dual roles as King of Macedonia and King of Asia.