allusion A reference to a familiar concept, person, or thing.

analytical essay An essay that defines and describes an issue by breaking it down into separate components and carefully considering each component.

annotation Marking up a text as you read by writing comments, questions, and ideas in the margins.

argument A rhetorical strategy that involves using persuasion to gain a reader's support for the writer's position.

assertion A statement that a writer claims is true without necessarily providing objective support for the claim.

audience The assumed readers of a text.






brainstorming An idea-generation strategy. Write your topic, a key word, or thesis at the top of a blank piece of paper or computer screen, and for ten or fifteen minutes just write down everything you associate with, think of, or know about that topic.






cause and effect/causal analysis A rhetorical strategy that examines the relationships between events or conditions and their consequences.

claim In argument, a statement that the author intends to support through the use of reasons, evidence, and appeals.

classification A rhetorical strategy that divides a subject into categories and then analyzes the characteristics of each category. See also division.

cognitive styles Different and individual approaches to thinking and understanding, especially in regard to how we process language and text.

coherence A characteristic of effective writing, achieved through careful organization of ideas and the skillful use of transitions.

colloquial language Informal language not usually found in an academic essay but appropriate in some cases for purposes of illustration.

comparison and contrast Two strategies that are often used to complement one another in the same essay. Comparison examines the similarities between two or more like subjects; contrast examines the differences between those subjects.

composing process The work of writing, moving from notes and ideas through multiple drafts to a "final" essay. All writers develop their own composing process as they become more comfortable with writing.

conflict A struggle between two opposing forces that creates suspense, tension, and interest in a narrative.

conventions The expectations general readers have of specific kinds of writing.






deduction An argument that begins with a clearly stated claim, and then uses selected evidence to support that claim. See also induction.

definition/extended definition A writing strategy that describes the nature of an abstract or concrete subject. Extended definition is a kind of essay based on that definition, expanding its scope by considering larger issues related to the subject (for example, the different ways in which different groups of people might define a term like freedom).

description A kind of writing based on sensory observations (sight, hearing, smell, touch) that allows readers to imaginatively re-create an experience.

diction The "style" of language, either written or spoken, from which inferences about the speaker's education, background, and origins can be made. Your choice of diction in a piece of writing depends on your intended audience and your purpose.

discourse Dialogue or conversation. In the study of rhetoric, discourse refers to the ways a specific group of people, organization, or institution speaks to and about itself.

division A rhetorical strategy that breaks a subject down into smaller parts and analyzes their relationship to the overall subject.

drafting Moving from notes and an outline to the general shape and form of a "final" essay. Writers often go through multiple "drafts" of an essay, moving ideas around, tinkering with the language, and double-checking facts.






editorialize An "editorial" in a newspaper offers the collective opinion of the newspaper's management on a topical issue. Writers "editorialize" when they offer opinions on a subject of topical interest. Unlike the approach of an argument, editorializing writers do not always consider the viewpoints of their opponents.

evidence In an argument, the facts and expert opinions used to support a claim.

exemplification See illustration.

expository essay An essay that seeks to explain something by combining different rhetorical strategies, such as classification and description.

extended definition See definition.






figurative language Imaginative language that compares one thing to another in ways that are not necessarily logical but that are nevertheless striking, original, and "true." Examples of figurative language are metaphor, simile, and allusion.






illustration Also called exemplification. The use of examples to support an essay's main idea. A successful illustrative essay uses several compelling examples to support its thesis.

imagery Descriptive writing that draws on vivid sensory descriptions and figurative language to re-create an experience for a reader.

induction In argument, a strategy that uses compelling evidence to lead an audience to an inevitable conclusion. See also deduction.

invective Angry or hostile language directed at a specific person (or persons).

irony A rhetorical strategy that uses language to suggest the opposite of what is actually being stated. Irony is used frequently in works of satire and works of humor.






major proposition See claim. In argument, the position a writer goes on to defend through reasons and evidence.

metaphor The comparison of two unlike things to one another for figurative effect.

minor proposition In argument, the position a writer goes on to defend through reasons and evidence. See also claim.

motif A simple theme (often a phrase or an image) that is repeated throughout a narrative to give it a deeper sense of unity and to underscore its basic idea.






narration/narrative A type of writing that tells a story. In an essay, narration is often used to describe what happened to a person or place over a certain period of time.






op-ed style Named for the "opinion and editorial" pages of newspapers, "op-ed style" describes brief arguments written for a general audience that are supported by evidence commonly accepted as "true" or "expert."






paraphrase Stating another author's opinions, ideas, or observations in your own words. When you paraphrase, you still give full credit (through in-text citation) to the original author.

persona The voice of the author of an essay or story, even if that voice never uses the first person or gives any further details about its "self." Your persona, in an academic essay, might be that of a concerned citizen, a sociological researcher, or a literary critic.

personal essay An essay written in the first person (the "I" point of view) that uses personal experience to illustrate a larger point.

persuasion A rhetorical strategy, often used in argument, that seeks to move readers to take a course of action or to change their minds about an issue.

point of view The perspective and attitude of a writer or narrator toward the subject.

précis A summary of the relevant facts, statements, and evidence offered by an essay, especially an argument.

prewriting Any idea-generation strategy that gets you "warmed up" for drafting an essay.

process analysis A kind of essay that describes, in chronological order, each step or stage of the performing of an action (a "how-to" essay).

prologue A brief statement or introduction to a longer work (originally, the introduction to a play spoken by one of the actors).

proposition A thesis statement, or claim, that suggests a specific action to take and seeks the support of readers to take that action. A proposition is supported by evidence demonstrating why this course of action is the best to take. See also major proposition and minor proposition.

purpose The reason a writer takes on a subject as well as the goal the writer hopes to achieve.






reader response theory Loosely defined, the idea that every reader brings an individual approach and background of knowledge to a text and responds to a text in a unique way.

reasons In argument, evidence you offer that your reader will accept as legitimate support for your claim. See also minor proposition.

rebuttal In argument, a considered response to an opposing point of view.

reflective essay An essay in which you examine and evaluate your own actions or beliefs, learning more about yourself in the process.

refutation In argument, proof that someone (usually the opposition) is incorrect.

revision The stage in the writing process in which you revisit your draft, reading and rewriting for clarity and purpose, adding or subtracting relevant evidence, and perhaps sharing your essay with additional readers for comment.

rhetoric The deliberate and formal use of language, usually in writing, to illustrate an idea or demonstrate a truth. The writer of rhetoric always has in mind an audience and a purpose.

rhetorical strategies Key patterns that writers employ to organize and clarify their ideas and opinions in an essay.






satire Writing that uses humor, often mocking, to call attention to stupidity or injustice and inspire social change. Satirists call attention to the foibles of groups, institutions, and bureaucracies rather than of individual people.

sensory detail Details based on the five senses (touch, sight, smell, taste, sound) that enhance descriptive writing.

simile A style of figurative language that compares two unlike things using like or as. See also metaphor.

stipulative definition Creating, based on your own experience and opinions, a definition of a term (generally an abstract term, such as globalization) for the purposes of your own argument.

style A writer's own unique sense for, and use of, language, imagery, and rhetoric. Some writers are immediately recognizable by their style; other times, a writer needs to consider audience and purpose when developing an appropriate style for a particular rhetorical task.

summary As a critical reading strategy, the brief restating (in your own words) of an essay's thesis, main points, and evidence. Summarizing can help you better understand the logic of a writer's argument and the way an essay is organized. See also précis.

symbol Something that stands for, or represents, something else. All numbers and letters are symbols, in that they stand for concepts and sounds.






thesis In an essay, a brief statement that concisely states the writer's subject and opinion on that subject.

tone The writer's "voice" in an essay that, through the use of diction and figurative language, as well as other rhetorical strategies, conveys the writer's feelings about the subject.

topical Relating to an issue or subject drawn from current events or that is of immediate interest to the audience.

topic sentence The sentence encapsulating the focus, or main idea, of each paragraph of an essay.

transition The language used to connect one idea to the next in an essay. Skillful use of transitions helps to give an essay coherence, allowing the reader to smoothly follow the writer's train of thoughts as well as to clearly see the connections between those thoughts and supporting evidence.






unity A quality of good writing that goes beyond coherence to an overall sense of completion. A writer achieves unity when the reader feels that not a word need be added to (or taken away from) the essay.

usage In rhetorical studies, the ways in which language is commonly used in speaking and writing.






visual texts Anything that conveys an idea without necessarily using language (photographs, advertisements, cartoons, graffiti, etc.).

voice See tone.






warrant In argument, a plausible assertion that a reader must agree with in order to accept the claim.